Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are respectively defined as plastic debris with sizes of <5 mm and <100 nm. In recent years, (nano)microplastics (N/MPs) have been widely detected in air, water, soil, and other environmental matrices. Despite knowledge gap of the risks of N/MPs, more and more researchers pay attention to the adverse effects of this type of fine plastic items on biota. Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is an ideal model organism for toxicology study on N/MPs. In this chapter, we have reviewed research progress in the toxicity of N/MPs and its mechanism basing on this model. At the individual level, N/MPs can cause lethality on nematodes and the inhibition of growth and reproduction. The alteration of locomotion behavior has been demonstrated in nematodes after N/MPs exposure. Moreover, the behavioral toxicity was revealed to be involved in the especial neurotoxicity, including damages of GABAergic and cholinergic neurons. In addition, intestine damages and oxidative stress were found in nematodes exposed to N/MPs. Several studies proved that the N/MPs-induced effects might be closely dependent on the size and dose of N/MPs. Recent studies showed that the toxicity of N/MPs was mediated by the insulin signaling pathway and p38 signaling; the intestinal signaling cascade of PMK-1-ATF-7-XBP-1 and PMK-1-SKN-1-XBP-1/GST-5 could regulate the responses to nanopolystyrene particles in nematodes. Although the toxicity of N/MPs has been largely investigated basing on C. elegans, the toxic mechanisms are still unclear. Moreover, current studies are most relying on a special type of pure polystyrene sphere, which might not be the representative of all N/MPs types. Therefore, more researches on environmental (nano)microplastics with different chemical compositions and shapes need to be done in the future.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
da Costa JP (2018) Micro- and nanoplastics in the environment: research and policymaking. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health 1:12–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2017.11.002
Koelmans AA, Besseling E, Shim WJ (2015) Nanoplastics in the aquatic environment. Critical review. In: Bergmann M, Gutow L, Klages M (eds) Marine anthropogenic litter. Springer, Cham, pp 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_12
Browne MA, Galloway T, Thompson R (2010) Microplastic--an emerging contaminant of potential concern? Integr Environ Assess Manag 3(4):559–561. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.5630030412
da Costa JP, Santos PSM, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T (2016) (Nano)plastics in the environment - sources, fates and effects. Sci Total Environ 566–567:15–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.041
ter Halle A, Ladirat L, Gendre X, Goudouneche D, Pusineri C, Routaboul C, Tenailleau C, Duployer B, Perez E (2016) Understanding the fragmentation pattern of marine plastic debris. Environ Sci Technol 50(11):5668–5675. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00594
Gigault J, Halle AT, Baudrimont M, Pascal PY, Gauffre F, Phi TL, El Hadri H, Grassl B, Reynaud S (2018) Current opinion: what is a nanoplastic? Environ Pollut 235:1030–1034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.01.024
Rios Mendoza LM, Karapanagioti H, Álvarez NR (2018) Micro(nanoplastics) in the marine environment: current knowledge and gaps. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health 1:47–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2017.11.004
Canesi L, Ciacci C, Fabbri R, Balbi T, Salis A, Damonte G, Cortese K, Caratto V, Monopoli MP, Dawson K (2016) Interactions of cationic polystyrene nanoparticles with marine bivalve hemocytes in a physiological environment: role of soluble hemolymph proteins. Environ Res 150:73–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.05.045
Lambert S, Sinclair CJ, Bradley EL, Boxall A (2013) Effects of environmental conditions on latex degradation in aquatic systems. Sci Total Environ 447(1):225–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.12.067
Ng EL, Huerta Lwanga E, Eldridge SM, Johnston P, Hu HW, Geissen V, Chen D (2018) An overview of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution in agroecosystems. Sci Total Environ 627:1377–1388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.341
Lv W, Zhou W, Lu S, Huang W, Yuan Q, Tian M, Lv W, He D (2019) Microplastic pollution in rice-fish co-culture system: a report of three farmland stations in Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ 652:1209–1218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.321
Song Y, Cao CJ, Qiu R, Hu JN, Liu MT, Lu SB, Shi HH, Raley-Susman KM, He DF (2019) Uptake and adverse effects of polyethylene terephthalate microplastics fibers on terrestrial snails (Achatina fulica) after soil exposure. Environ Pollut 250:447–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.04.066
Dawson AL, Kawaguchi S, King CK, Townsend KA, King R, Huston WM, Bengtson Nash SM (2018) Turning microplastics into nanoplastics through digestive fragmentation by Antarctic krill. Nat Commun 9(1):1001. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03465-9
Van Cauwenberghe L, Devriese L, Galgani F, Robbens J, Janssen CR (2015) Microplastics in sediments: a review of techniques, occurrence and effects. Mar Environ Res 111:5–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.06.007
Schwaferts C, Niessner R, Elsner M, Ivleva NP (2019) Methods for the analysis of submicrometer- and nanoplastic particles in the environment. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 112:52–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.12.014
Liu M, Song Y, Lu S, Qiu R, Hu J, Li X, Bigalke M, Shi H, He D (2019) A method for extracting soil microplastics through circulation of sodium bromide solutions. Sci Total Environ 691:341–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.144
Liu M, Lu S, Song Y, Lei L, Hu J, Lv W, Zhou W, Cao C, Shi H, Yang X, He D (2018) Microplastic and mesoplastic pollution in farmland soils in suburbs of Shanghai, China. Environ Pollut 242:855–862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.051
He D, Luo Y, Lu S, Liu M, Song Y, Lei L (2018) Microplastics in soils: analytical methods, pollution characteristics and ecological risks. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 109:163–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.10.006
Lenz R, Enders K, Nielsen TG (2016) Microplastic exposure studies should be environmentally realistic. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113(29):E4121–E4122. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1606615113
Hurley RR, Nizzetto L (2018) Fate and occurrence of micro(nano)plastics in soils: knowledge gaps and possible risks. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health 1:6–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2017.10.006
Eriksen M, Lebreton LC, Carson HS, Thiel M, Moore CJ, Borerro JC, Galgani F, Ryan PG, Reisser J (2014) Plastic pollution in the world’s oceans: more than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PLoS One 9(12):e111913. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111913
Liu Z, Yu P, Cai M, Wu D, Zhang M, Huang Y, Zhao Y (2019) Polystyrene nanoplastic exposure induces immobilization, reproduction, and stress defense in the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia pulex. Chemosphere 215:74–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.176
Cole M, Galloway TS (2015) Ingestion of nanoplastics and microplastics by Pacific oyster larvae. Environ Sci Technol 49(24):14625–14632. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04099
Sjollema SB, Redondo-Hasselerharm P, Leslie HA, Kraak MHS, Vethaak AD (2016) Do plastic particles affect microalgal photosynthesis and growth? Aquat Toxicol 170:259–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.12.002
Hamer J, Gutow L, Kohler A, Saborowski R (2014) Fate of microplastics in the marine lsopod Idotea emarginata. Environ Sci Technol 48(22):13451–13458. https://doi.org/10.1021/es501385y
Chua EM, Shimeta J, Nugegoda D, Morrison PD, Clarke BO (2014) Assimilation of Polybrominated diphenyl ethers from microplastics by the marine amphipod, Allorchestes Compressa. Environ Sci Technol 48(14):8127–8134. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405717z
Lei L, Wu S, Lu S, Liu M, Song Y, Fu Z, Shi H, Raley-Susman KM, He D (2018) Microplastic particles cause intestinal damage and other adverse effects in zebrafish Danio rerio and nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Sci Total Environ 619-620:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.103
Jeong CB, Won EJ, Kang HM, Lee MC, Hwang DS, Hwang UK, Zhou B, Souissi S, Lee SJ, Lee JS (2016) Microplastic size-dependent toxicity, oxidative stress induction, and p-JNK and p-p38 activation in the Monogonont rotifer (Brachionus koreanus). Environ Sci Technol 50(16):8849–8857. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b01441
Lu YF, Zhang Y, Deng YF, Jiang W, Zhao YP, Geng JJ, Ding LL, Ren HQ (2016) Uptake and accumulation of polystyrene microplastics in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and toxic effects in liver. Environ Sci Technol 50(7):4054–4060. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00183
Besseling E, Wegner A, Foekema EM, van den Heuvel-Greve MJ, Koelmans AA (2013) Effects of microplastic on fitness and PCB bioaccumulation by the lugworm Arenicola marina (L.). Environ Sci Technol 47(1):593–600. https://doi.org/10.1021/es302763x
Khan FR, Syberg K, Shashoua Y, Bury NR (2015) Influence of polyethylene microplastic beads on the uptake and localization of silver in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Environ Pollut 206:73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.06.009
Khan FR, Boyle D, Chang E, Bury NR (2017) Do polyethylene microplastic beads alter the intestinal uptake of Ag in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)? Analysis of the MP vector effect using in vitro gut sacs. Environ Pollut 231:200–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.08.019
Sleight VA, Bakir A, Thompson RC, Henry TB (2017) Assessment of microplastic-sorbed contaminant bioavailability through analysis of biomarker gene expression in larval zebrafish. Mar Pollut Bull 116(1–2):291–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.12.055
Edgar L (1998) C. Elegans II. Donald L. Riddle, Thomas Blumenthal, Barbara J. Meyer, James R. Priess. Q Rev Biol 73(1):81–81. https://doi.org/10.1086/420102
Larsen PL, Riddle DL (1997) Model organisms: post-mitotic life extension in C-elegans. FASEB J 11(9):A1289–A1289
WormBase. www.wormbase.org
Hodgkin J (1999) The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism. J Med Genet 36:S33–S33
Consortium CeS (1998) Genome sequence of the nematode C-elegans: a platform for investigating biology. Science 282(5396):2012–2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/glycob/cwi075
Xu T, Zhang M, Hu J, Li Z, Wu T, Bao J, Wu S, Lei L, He D (2017) Behavioral deficits and neural damage of Caenorhabditis elegans induced by three rare earth elements. Chemosphere 181:55–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.04.068
Xu T, Li P, Wu S, Lei L, He D (2017) Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris(2-chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) induce locomotor deficits and dopaminergic degeneration in Caenorhabditis elegans. Toxicol Res (Camb) 6(1):63–72. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6tx00306k
Qu M, Liu Y, Xu K, Wang D (2019) Activation of p38 MAPK signaling-mediated endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response by Nanopolystyrene particles. Adv Biosyst 3(4):1800325. https://doi.org/10.1002/adbi.201800325
Zhao L, Qu M, Wong G, Wang D (2017) Transgenerational toxicity of nanopolystyrene particles in the range of μg L−1 in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Environ Sci Nano 4(12):2356–2366. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7en00707h
Qu M, Xu K, Li Y, Wong G, Wang D (2018) Using acs-22 mutant Caenorhabditis elegans to detect the toxicity of nanopolystyrene particles. Sci Total Environ 643:119–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.173
Lei L, Liu M, Song Y, Lu S, Hu J, Cao C, Xie B, Shi H, He D (2018) Polystyrene (nano)microplastics cause size-dependent neurotoxicity, oxidative damage and other adverse effects in Caenorhabditis elegans. Environ Sci Nano 5:2009. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EN00412A
Qu M, Kong Y, Yuan Y, Wang D (2019) Neuronal damage induced by nanopolystyrene particles in nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Environ Sci Nano 6(8):2591–2601. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9EN00473D
McIntire SL, Jorgensen E, Kaplan J, Horvitz HR (1993) The GABAergic nervous system of Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature 364(6435):337–341. https://doi.org/10.1038/364337a0
Thomas JH (1990) Genetic analysis of defecation in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 124(4):855–872
White JG, Southgate E, Thomson JN, Brenner S (1986) The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 314(1165):1–340. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1986.0056
Fouad AD, Teng S, Mark JR, Liu A, Ji H, Cornblath E, Guan A, Mei Z, Fangyen C (2017) Distributed rhythm generators underlie Caenorhabditis elegans forward locomotion. eLife 7:e29913. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.29913
Mathews EA, Mullen GP, Manjarrez JR, Rand JB (2015) Unusual regulation of splicing of the cholinergic locus in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 199(3):729–737. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.114.173765
Siyu W, Lili L, Yang S, Mengting L, Shibo L, Dan L, Yonghong S, Zhibin W, Defu H (2018) Mutation of hop-1 and pink-1 attenuates vulnerability of neurotoxicity in C. elegans: the role of mitochondria-associated membrane proteins in Parkinsonism. Exp Neurol 309:67–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2018.07.018
Finkel T, Holbrook NJ (2000) Oxidants, oxidative stress and the biology of ageing. Nature 408(6809):239–247. https://doi.org/10.1038/35041687
Hasegawa K, Miwa S, Isomura K, Tsutsumiuchi K, Taniguchi H, Miwa J (2008) Acrylamide-responsive genes in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Toxicol Sci 101(2):215–225. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfm276
Yu CW, Wei CC, Liao VHC (2014) Curcumin-mediated oxidative stress resistance in Caenorhabditis elegans is modulated by age-1, akt-1, pdk-1, osr-1, unc-43, sek-1, skn-1, sir-2.1, and mev-1. Free Radic Res 48(3):371–379. https://doi.org/10.3109/10715762.2013.872779
Furumura M, Sato N, Kusaba N, Takagaki K, Nakayama J (2012) Oral administration of French maritime pine bark extract (Flavangenol (R)) improves clinical symptoms in photoaged facial skin. Clin Interv Aging 7:275–285. https://doi.org/10.2147/Cia.S33165
Shao HM, Han ZY, Krasteva N, Wang DY (2019) Identification of signaling cascade in the insulin signaling pathway in response to nanopolystyrene particles. Nanotoxicology 13(2):174–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/17435390.2018.1530395
Kenyon CJ (2010) The genetics of ageing. Nature 464(7288):504–512. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08980
Kimura KD, Tissenbaum HA, Liu YX, Ruvkun G (1997) daf-2, an insulin receptor-like gene that regulates longevity and diapause in Caenorhabditis elegans. Science 277(5328):942–946. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.942
Murphy CT, McCarroll SA, Bargmann CI, Fraser A, Kamath RS, Ahringer J, Li H, Kenyon C (2003) Genes that act downstream of DAF-16 to influence the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature 424(6946):277–284. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01789
Hunter T, Bannister WH, Hunter GJ (1997) Cloning, expression, and characterization of two manganese superoxide dismutases from Caenorhabditis elegans. J Biol Chem 272(45):28652–28659. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.272.45.28652
Hughes S, Sturzenbaum SR (2007) Single and double metallothionein knockout in the nematode C. elegans reveals cadmium dependent and independent toxic effects on life history traits. Environ Pollut 145(2):395–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.06.003
Huang XY, Barrios LAM, Vonkhorporn P, Honda S, Albertson DG, Hecht RM (1989) Genomic organization of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene family of Caenorhabditis elegans. J Mol Biol 206(3):411–424
Inoue H, Hisamoto N, An JH, Oliveira RP, Nishida E, Blackwell TK, Matsumoto K (2005) The C. elegans p38 MAPK pathway regulates nuclear localization of the transcription factor SKN-1 in oxidative stress response. Genes Dev 19(19):2278–2283. https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.1324805
Martínez G, Duran-Aniotz C, Cabral-Miranda F, Hetz C (2016) Commentary: XBP-1 is a cell-nonautonomous regulator of stress resistance and longevity. Front Aging Neurosci 8:182. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00182
Song CJ, Charli A, Luo J, Riaz Z, Jin HJ, Anantharam V, Kanthasamy A, Kanthasamy AG (2019) Mechanistic interplay between autophagy and apoptotic signaling in Endosulfan-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity: relevance to the adverse outcome pathway in pesticide neurotoxicity. Toxicol Sci 169(2):333–352. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfz049
Srivastava A, Kumar V, Pandey A, Jahan S, Kumar D, Rajpurohit CS, Singh S, Khanna VK, Pant AB (2017) Adoptive autophagy activation: a much-needed remedy against chemical induced neurotoxicity/developmental neurotoxicity. Mol Neurobiol 54(3):1797–1807. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-016-9778-5
Alberti A, Michelet X, Djeddi A, Legouis R (2010) The autophagosomal protein LGG-2 acts synergistically with LGG-1 in dauer formation and longevity in C. elegans. Autophagy 6(5):622–633. https://doi.org/10.4161/auto.6.5.12252
Qu M, Zhao Y, Zhao Y, Rui Q, Kong Y, Wang D (2019) Identification of long non-coding RNAs in response to nanopolystyrene in Caenorhabditis elegans after long-term and low-dose exposure. Environ Pollut 255(Pt 1):113137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113137
Qu M, Luo L, Yang Y, Kong Y, Wang D (2019) Nanopolystyrene-induced microRNAs response in Caenorhabditis elegans after long-term and lose-dose exposure. Sci Total Environ 697:134131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134131
Zhi LT, Qu M, Ren MX, Zhao L, Li YH, Wang DY (2017) Graphene oxide induces canonical Wnt/beta-catenin signaling-dependent toxicity in Caenorhabditis elegans. Carbon 113:122–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2016.11.041
Hartmann NB, Rist S, Bodin J, Jensen LHS, Schmidt SN, Mayer P, Meibom A, Baun A (2017) Microplastics as vectors for environmental contaminants: exploring sorption, desorption, and transfer to biota. Integr Environ Assess 13(3):488–493. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1904
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by the National Science and Technology Major Project for Water Pollution Control and Treatment (No.2018ZX07208008) and the National Key Research and Development of China (No. 2016YFC1402204 and No. 2018YFC1901004).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hu, J., Li, X., Lei, L., Cao, C., Wang, D., He, D. (2020). The Toxicity of (Nano)Microplastics on C. elegans and Its Mechanisms. In: He, D., Luo, Y. (eds) Microplastics in Terrestrial Environments. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, vol 95. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2020_452
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2020_452
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-56270-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-56271-7
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)