Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Exercise Programmes in the Treatment of Children with Learning Disabilities

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Learning disability is characterised by a discrepancy between achievement and assessed intellectual ability. Children with this problem commonly (but not invariably) show impaired motor proficiency, as assessed by such instruments as the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of motor proficiency. It has been hypothesised that poor motor performance and/or poor social skills lead to exclusion from games, creating a vicious cycle of decreasing participation, decreasing competence, a deterioration of self-worth and increasing social maladjustment.

Attempts to break the vicious cycle with programmes designed to enhance motor proficiency have been uniformly unsuccessful. There is limited experimental evidence to support the view that structured physical activity programmes with an embedded social skills training component can be an effective method of enhancing both actual motor ability and self-perception of physical and academic competence. However, a controlled comparison with small-group, academic instruction has shown that, from the educational perspective, a physical activity-based intervention is no more effective than other forms of special attention. The main argument for delivering social skills training through a physical activity programme lies not in a unique impact upon learning disability, but rather in terms of the other well-established long term health benefits of exercise.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Swanson HL. Toward a meta-theory of learning disabilities. J Learning Disabil 1988; 21: 196–210

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Mercer CD, Hughes C, Mercer AR. Learning disabilities definitions used by State education departments. Learning Disabil Q 1985; 8: 45–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. McKinney JD. The search for subtypes of specific learning disabilities. J Learning Disabil 1984; 17: 43–51

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Ozols EJ, Rourke BP Dimensions of social sensitivity in two types of learning disabled children. In: Rourke BP, editor. Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: essentials of subtype analysis. New York: Guilford, 1985: 281–301

    Google Scholar 

  5. Rourke BP, Strang JD. Subtypes of reading and arithmetic disabilities: a neuropsychological analysis. In: Rutter M, editor. Developmental neuropsychiatry. New York: Guilford, 1983: 473–88

    Google Scholar 

  6. Siegel LS, Heaven RK. Categorization of learning disabilities. In: Ceci S, editor. Handbook of cognitive, social and neuropsychological aspects of learning disabilities. New York: Academic Press, 1986: 95–122

    Google Scholar 

  7. Wiener J, Harris PJ. Evaluation of an individualized, context based social skills training program for children with learning disabilities. J Learning Disabil Res Pract. In press

  8. Johnson DJ. Nonverbal learning disabilities. Pediatr Ann 1987; 16: 133–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Rourke BP. Nonverbal learning disabilities: the syndrome and the model. New York: Guilford, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  10. Weller C, Strawser S. Adaptive behavior of subtypes of learning disabled individuals. J Special Educ 1987; 21: 101–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Douglas VL, Peters KG. Toward a clearer definition of the attentional deficit of hyperactive children. In: Hale G, Lewis M, editors. Attention and the development of cognitive style. New York: Plenum, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  12. Flicek M. Social status of boys with both academic problems and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1992; 20: 353–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Flicek M, Landau S. Social status problems of learning disabled and hyperactive/learning disabled boys. J Clin Child Psychol 1985; 14: 340–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Landau S, Moore LA. Social skill deficits in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. School Psychol Rev 1991; 20: 235–51

    Google Scholar 

  15. Education Act (Ontario) 1984, subsect. 1(1)

  16. Bruno R. Interpretation of pictorially presented social situations by learning disabled and normal children. J Learning Disabil 1981; 14: 350–2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Carlson CI. Social interaction goals and strategies of children with learning disabilities. J Learning Disabil 1987; 20: 306–11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Oliva AH, LaGreca AM. Children with learning disabilities: social goals and strategies. J Learning Disabil 1988; 21: 301–6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Wiener J, Harris PJ, Shirer C. Achievement and social-behavioural correlates of peer status in learning disabled children. Learning Disabil Q 1990; 13: 114–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Brandon JE, Eason RL, Smith TL. Behavioral relaxation training and motor performance of learning disabled children with hyperactive behaviors. Adapted Phys Activity Q 1986; 3: 67–79

    Google Scholar 

  21. Sherrill C, Pyfer JL. Learning disabled students in physical education. Adapted Phys Activ Q 1985; 2: 283–91

    Google Scholar 

  22. Eichstaedt CB, Kalakian LH. Learning disabilities. In: Eichstaedt CB, Kalakian LH, editors. Developmental/adapted physical education: making ability count. New York: Mac-Millan, 1987: 228–42

    Google Scholar 

  23. Geddes D. Future directions: physical activity for LD children. Acad Ther 1980; 16(1): 5–9

    Google Scholar 

  24. Williams J. Dyslexia. Orbit 1978; 9(1): 24–6

    Google Scholar 

  25. Barlow B. Perceptual-motor activities in the treatment of severe reading disability. Reading Teacher 1971; 24(6): 513–25

    Google Scholar 

  26. Hallahan DP, Cruickshank WM. The efficacy of perceptual-motor training. In: Hallahan DP, Cruickshank WM. Psycho-educational foundations of learning disabilities. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973: 176–216

    Google Scholar 

  27. Hammill DD, Goodman L, Weiderholt JL. Visual-motor processes: can we train them? Reading Teacher 1974; 27: 469–78

    Google Scholar 

  28. Kavale KA, Mattson PD. One jumped off the balance beam: meta-analysis of perceptual motor training. J Learning Disabil 1983; 16: 165–73

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Myers PI, Hammill DD. Developing perceptual motor correlates. In: Myers PI, Hamill DD, editors. Learning disabilities: basic concepts, assessment practices, and instructional strategies. Austin: Wiley, 1982: 343–417

    Google Scholar 

  30. Poplin MS. The reductionist fallacy in learning disabilities: replicating the past by reducing the present. J Learning Disabil 1988; 21: 389–400

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Vellutino FR, Steger BM, Moyer SC, et al. Has the perceptual deficit hypothesis led us astray? J Learning Disabil 1977; 10: 54–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Bruininks RH. Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency: examiner’s manual. Circle Pines, Mn.: American Guidance Service, 1978

    Google Scholar 

  33. Hamill J. The physically challenged child. Pediatric Exercise Science 1992; 4: 197–248

    Google Scholar 

  34. Ulrich BD. Standardized motor assessment tests used by adapted physical education teachers. Unpublished manuscript, available from the author, Dept of Kinesiology, Indiana University, 1985

  35. Winnick JP, Short FX. Physical fitness testing of the disabled: Project Unique. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  36. Miles BH, Nierengarten ME, Nearing RJ. A review of the eleven most often-cited assessment instruments used in adapted physical education. Clin Kinesiol 1988; 42: 33–41

    Google Scholar 

  37. Sabatino DA. Review of Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency. In: Mitchell JV, editor. The ninth mental measurements yearbook, vol. 1. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985: 235–6

    Google Scholar 

  38. Bialer I, Doll L, Winsberg G. A modified Lincoln-Oseretsky motor development scale: provisional standardization. Percept Motor Skills 1974; 38: 599–614

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Bruininks VL, Bruininks RL. Motor proficiency of learning disabled and non-learning disabled students. Percept Motor Skills 1977; 44: 1131–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Beitel PA, Mead BJ. Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of motor proficiency: a viable measure for 3- to 5-year-old children. Percept Motor Skills 1982; 51: 919–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Broadhead GD, Church GE. Discriminant analysis of gross and fine motor proficiency data. Percept Motor Skills 1982; 55: 547–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. King HA, Aufsesser PM. A decision-theoretic examination of the usefulness of two motor performance tests in identifying children for assignment to special education. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, Division of Special Education, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  43. Pyfer JL, Carlson BR. Characteristic motor development of children with learning disabilities. Percept Motor Skills 1972; 35: 291–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Doll-Tepper GM. Effects of physical education on children with learning disabilities. In: Berridge ME, Ward GR, editors. International perspectives on adapted physical activity. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1987: 19–24

    Google Scholar 

  45. Schilling F, Kiphard E. The body coordination test. J Phys Educ Recreation 1976; 47: 37

    Google Scholar 

  46. Kendrick KA, Hanten WR. Assessment and evaluation in adapted physical education. Atlanta: Georgia State University, 1980. (ED 210 879)

    Google Scholar 

  47. American Association of Health and Physical Education. Testing for impaired, disabled and handicapped individuals. Washington, DC: AAHPER, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  48. Akers LC. Comparison of motor proficiency in learning disabled and normal children [doctoral thesis]. Birmingham, Ala: Univ. of Alabama, 1983

    Google Scholar 

  49. Haubenstricker JL. Motor development in children with learning disabilities. J Phys Educ Recreation Dance 1982; 53: 41–3

    Google Scholar 

  50. Maeland AF. Identification of children with motor coordination problems. Adapted Phys Activity Q 1992; 9: 330–42

    Google Scholar 

  51. Wall AE. Physically awkward children: a motor development perspective. In: Das JP, Mulcahy R, Wall AE, editors. Theory and research in learning disabilities. New York: Plenum, 1982: 254

    Google Scholar 

  52. Arnheim DD, Sinclair WA. The clumsy child: a program of motor therapy. St Louis: Mosby, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  53. Maloy CF, Sattler JM. Motor and cognitive proficiency of learning disabled and normal children. J School Psychol 1979; 17: 213–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Johnson RE, Rubinson RM. Physical functioning levels of learning disabled and normal children. Am Corrective Ther J 1983; 37: 56–60

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Bluechardt M, Shephard RJ. Responses of learning disabled students to extracurricular activity with a social skills component. J Learning Disabil. In press

  56. Mirwald RL, Bailey DA. Maximal aerobic power: a longitudinal analysis. London, Ont.: Sports Dynamics, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  57. Clark JE, Ewing M. A meta-analysis of gender differences and similarities in the gross motor skills of prepubescent children. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Gulf Park, Mass., May 1985

  58. Harris ID, Jones MA. The motor performance status of elementary school children in Georgia. Marietta, Ga.: Georgia Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  59. Thomas JR, French KE. Gender differences across age in motor performance: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 1985; 98: 260–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Berry K, Buktenica N. Developmental test of visual-motor integration. Chicago: Follett, 1967

    Google Scholar 

  61. Culbertson F, Gunn R. Comparison of the Bender Gestalt Test and Frostig Test in several clinical groups of children. J Clin Psychol 1966; 22: 439

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Keogh B, Smith C. Changes in copying ability of young children. Percept Motor Skills 1968; 26: 773–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Koppitz E. The Bender Gestalt Test for young children, vol. II. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  64. Maccoby E, Jacklin C. The psychology of sex differences. New York: Praeger, 1974

    Google Scholar 

  65. Vogel SA. Gender differences in intelligence, language, visual-motor abilities, and academic achievement in students with learning disabilities: a review of the literature. J Learning Disabil 1990; 23: 44–52

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Anastasi A. Sex differences: historical perspectives and methodological implications. Dev Rev 1981; 1: 187–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Malina RM. Anthropometric correlates of strength and motor performance. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1975; 3: 249–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Tanner JM. Growth at adolescence. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1962

    Google Scholar 

  69. Branta C, Painter M, Kiger J. Gender differences in play patterns and sport participation of North American youth. In: Gould D, Weiss MR, editors. Advances in pediatric sport sciences, vol. 2: behavioral issues. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1987: 25–42

    Google Scholar 

  70. Coakley JJ. Children and the sport socialization process. In: Gould D, Weiss MR, editors. Advances in pediatric sport sciences, vol. 2: behavioral issues. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1987: 43–60

    Google Scholar 

  71. Lever J. Sex differences in the games children play. Soc Prob 1976; 23: 478–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Greendorfer SL, Brundage CL. Gender differences in children’s sport skills. In: Adrian MJ, editor. Sports women. Basel: Karger, 1987: 125–37

    Google Scholar 

  73. Ackerman PT, Dykman RA, Oglesby DM. Sex and group differences in reading and attention disordered children with and without hyperkinesia. J Learn Disord 1983; 16: 407–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. D’Amato RC, Dean RS, Rattan G, et al. A study of psychological referrals for learning disabled children. J Psychoeduc Assess 1988; 6: 118–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. DeFries JC. Gender ratios in children with reading disability and their affected relatives: a commentary. J Learning Disabil 1989; 22: 544–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Finucci JM, Childs B. Are there really more dyslexic boys than girls? In: Ansara A, Geschwind N, Galaburda A, et al., editors. Sex differences in dyslexia. Baltimore: Orton Dyslexia Society, 1981: 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  77. Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Fletcher JM, et al. Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls: results of the Connecticut longitudinal study. JAMA 1990; 264: 998–1002

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Mirkin P. Direct and repeated measurement of academic skills: an alternative to traditional screening: referral and identification of learning disabled students. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, 1982. Report no.: IRLD-RR-75

    Google Scholar 

  79. Berry C, Shaywitz S, Shaywitz B. Girls with attention deficit disorder: a silent minority? A report on behavioral and cognitive characteristics. Pediatrics 1985; 76: 801–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Epstein MH, Cullinan D, Rosemier R. Behaviour problem patterns among the learning disabled: boys aged 6–11. Learning Disabil Q 1983; 6: 305–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Geschwind N. A reaction of conference. In: Ansara A, Geschwind N, Galaburda A, et al., editors. Sex differences in dyslexia. Baltimore: Orton Dyslexia Society, 1981: 13–8

    Google Scholar 

  82. Denno D. Sex differences in cognition: a review and critique of the longitudinal evidence. Adolescence 1982; 17: 779–88

    Google Scholar 

  83. Mayes AG, Roberts AR. A study of WISC-R sub-test scores of learning disabled students, 1985. (ED 262 545)

  84. Ryckman D. Sex differences in a sample of learning disabled children. Learning Disabil Q 1981; 4: 48–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Vance H, Singer M, Engin A. WISC-R sub-test differences for male and female children and youth. J Clin Psychol 1980; 36: 953–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Vogel SOA, Walsh P. Gender differences in cognitive abilities in learning disabled females and males. Ann Dyslexia 1987; 37: 142–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Coopersmith S. The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: WH Freeman, 1967

    Google Scholar 

  88. Martinek T, Zaichkowsky LD. Manual and scale for the Martinek-Zaichowsky Self-concept Scale for Children. Jacksonville, Ill.: Psychologists and Educators, 1977

    Google Scholar 

  89. Piers EV. Manual for the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. Nashville: Counsellor Recordings and Tests, 1969

    Google Scholar 

  90. Harter S. The perceived competence scale for children. Child Dev 1982; 53: 87–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Harter S. The determinants and mediational role of global self-worth in children. In: Eisenberg N, editor. Contemporary topics in developmental psychology. Toronto: Wiley, 1985: 219–41

    Google Scholar 

  92. Bryan TH, Donahue M, Pearl R. Learning disabled children’s peer interactions during a small group problem solving task. Learning Disabil Q 1981; 4: 13–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Renick M, Harter S. Manual for the self-perception profile for learning disabled students. Denver: University of Denver Press, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  94. Battle J, Blowers T, Yeudall L. An exploratory study of self-esteem and brain dysfunction in elementary school children. Psychol Rep 1980; 46: 149–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Griffin NS, Keogh JF. A model for movement confidence. In: Kelso JAS, Clark JE, editors. The development of movement control and coordination. Chichester: Wiley, 1982: 213–36

    Google Scholar 

  96. Harter S. The development of competence motivation in the mastery of cognitive and physical skills: is there still a play for joy? In: Roberts GC, Landers DM, editors. Psychology of motor behavior and sport. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1981: 3–29

    Google Scholar 

  97. Messner YJ. Athletic perceived competence of learning disabled préadolescent males and the learning of a motor skill with augmented feedback. Advocate: Natl Consort Phys Educ Recreation Handicapped 1987; 16(1): 3

    Google Scholar 

  98. Ulrich BD. Perceptions of physical competence, motor competence, and participation in organized sport: their interrelationships in young children. Res Q 1987; 58: 57–67

    Google Scholar 

  99. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory for behavioral change. Psychol Rev 1977; 84: 191–215

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Bandura A. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977

    Google Scholar 

  101. Godin G, Shephard RJ. Use of attitude-behaviour models in exercise promotion. Sports Med 1990; 10: 103–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. White R. Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. Psychol Rev 1959; 66: 297–333

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Harter S, Connell JP. A model of children’s achievement and related self-perceptions of competence, control and activational orientation. In: Nicholls J, editor. Advances in motivation and achievement. Ill: the development of achievement motivation. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1984: 153–97

    Google Scholar 

  104. Weiss MR, Bredemeier BJ, Shewchuck RM. The dynamics of perceived competence, perceived control and motivational orientation in youth sport. In: Weiss M, Gould D, editors. Sport for children and youth. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  105. Harter S. Pleasure derived from cognitive challenge and mastery. Child Dev 1974; 45: 661–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Harter S. Competence as a dimension of self-evaluation: toward a comprehensive model of self-worth. In: Leahy R, editor. The development of the self. New York: Academic Press, 1985: 55–121

    Google Scholar 

  107. Johnson DS. Naturally acquired learned helplessness: the relationship of school failure to achievement behaviour attributions, and self-concept. J Educ Psychol 1981; 73: 174–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Black WF. Self-concept as related to achievement and age in learning disabled children. Child Dev 1974; 45: 1137–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Sheare J. The impact of resource programs upon the self-concept and peer acceptance of learning disabled children. Psychol Schools 1978; 15: 406–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Margalit M, Zak I. Anxiety and self-concept of learning disabled children. J Learning Disabil 1984; 17: 537–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Rogers H, Saklofske D. Self-concepts, locus of control and performance expectations of learning disabled children. J Learning Disabil 1985; 18: 273–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Kistner JA, Haskett M, White K, et al. Perceived competence and self-worth of learning disabled and normally achieving students. Learning Disabil Q 1987; 10: 37–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Kistner JA, Osborne M. A longitudinal study of learning disabled children’s self-evaluation. Learning Disabil Q 1987; 10: 258–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Grolnick WS, Ryan RM. Self-perceptions, motivation and adjustment in children with learning disabilities: a multiple group comparison study. J Learning Disabil 1990; 23: 177–84

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Bryan TH, Pearl R. Self-concepts and locus of control of learning disabled children. J Clin Child Psychol 1979; 8: 223–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Harter S. Effectance motivation reconsidered: toward a developmental model. Hum Dev 21: 34–64

  117. Harter S, Pike R. The pictorial scale of perceived competence and social acceptance for young children. Child Dev 1984; 55: 1969–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Horn TS, Weiss MR. A developmental analysis of children’s self-ability judgments in the physical domain. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1991; 3: 310–26

    Google Scholar 

  119. Boling R P. Differences between actual motor ability and physical self-concept (perceived motor performance/body image) of fifth grade boys [doctoral dissertation]. Jackson, Miss.: Mississippi State University, 1983 (ED.229 372)

    Google Scholar 

  120. Feltz D, Brown E. Perceived competence in soccer skills among young soccer players. J Sport Psychol 1984; 6: 385–94

    Google Scholar 

  121. Guyot GW, Fairchild L, Hill M. Physical fitness, sport participation, body build, and self-concept of elementary school children. Int J Sport Psychol 1981; 12: 105–16

    Google Scholar 

  122. Roberts GC, Kleiber DA, Duba JL. An analysis of motivation in children’s sport: the role of perceived competence in participation. J Sport Psychol 1981; 3: 206–16

    Google Scholar 

  123. Feltz D, Petlichkoff L. Perceived competence among interscholastic sport participants and dropouts. Can J Appl Sport Sci 1983; 8: 231–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Martinek TJ, Cheffers JT, Zaichowsky LD. Physical activity, motor development and self concept: race and age differences. Percept Motor Skills 1978; 46: 147–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Martinek T, Karper W. Entry-level motor performance and self-concepts of handicapped and non-handicapped children in mainstreamed physical education classes: a preliminary study. Percept Motor Skills 1982; 55: 1002

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Van Rossum JHA, Vermeer A. Perceived competence: a validation study in the field of motoria remedial teaching. Int J Disabil Dev Educ 1990; 37: 71–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Zimmer R. Motorik und Persoenlichkeitsentwicklunq bei Kindern im Vorschulalter. Schorndorf: Karl Hofmann Verlag, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  128. Harter S. The self-perception profile for children: manual. Denver: University of Denver Press, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  129. Goldman R, Hardin VE. The social perception of learning disabled and non-learning disabled children. Exceptional Child 1982; 29(1): 57–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Pearl R, Cosden M. Sizing up a situation: learning disabled children’s understanding of social situations. Learning Disabil Q 1982; 5: 371–3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. LaGreca A. Social behavior and social perception in learning disabled children: a review with implications for social skills training. J Pediatr Psychol 1981; 6: 395–416

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Stone WL, LaGreca AM. The social status of children with learning disabilities: a re-examination. J Learning Disabil 1990; 23: 32–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Hartup WW. Peer relations. In: Heatherington EM, editor. Handbook of child psychology: socialization, personality and social development, vol. 4. New York: Wiley, 1983: 103–96

    Google Scholar 

  134. Ladd GW. Documenting the effects of social skill training with children: process and outcome assessment. In: Schneider B, Rubin K, Ledingham J, editors. Children’s peer relations: issues in assessment and intervention. New York: Springer Verlag, 1985: 243–69

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  135. French DC, Waas GE. Behaviors problems of peer rejected and neglected elementary age children: teacher and parent perspectives. Child Dev 1985; 56: 246–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Kneedler RD. The use of cognitive training to change social behavior. Exceptional Educ Q 1980; 1: 65–73

    Google Scholar 

  137. McHale SM, Olley JG. Using play to facilitate the social development of handicapped children. Teaching Exceptional Children Spec Educ 1982; 2: 76–86

    Google Scholar 

  138. Smoll FL. Motor impairment and social development. Am J Corrective Ther 1974; 28: 4–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Gottlieb BW, Gottlieb J, Berkell D, et al. Sociometric status and solitary play of LD boys and girls. J Learning Disabil 1986; 19: 619–22

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Silver LB. Psychological and family problems associated with learning disabilities: assessment and intervention. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989; 28: 319–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Siperstein G, Bopp M, Bak J. Social status of learning disabled children. J Learning Disabil 1978; 11: 49–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. McGinnis E, Goldstein AP, Sprafkin RP, et al. Skill-streaming the elementary school child: a guide for teaching prosocial skills. Champaign, Ill.: Research Press, 1984: 18

    Google Scholar 

  143. Spivak G, Piatt JJ, Shure MB. The problem-solving approach to adjustment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1976

    Google Scholar 

  144. Weissberg RP, Gesten EL, Rapkin BD, et al. Evaluation of a social-problem-solving training program for suburban and inner-city third grade children. J Consult Clin Psychol 1981; 49: 251–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Vaughn S, McIntosh R, Hogan A. Why social skills training doesn’t work: an alternative model. In: Scruggs TE, Wong BYL, editors. Intervention research in learning disabilities. New York: Springer Verlag, 1990: 279–303

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  146. Reid G (1982). Physical education for the learning disabled student: an update. Learning Disabil Q 1982; 5: 190–3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. Elstein A. Effects of physical education on the physical fitness, social adjustment, and self-concept of learning disabled students [doctoral dissertation]. Philadelphia: Temple University, 1976. Dissert Abstracts Int; 38 (01): 200

    Google Scholar 

  148. Martino L, Johnson D. Cooperative and individualistic experiences among disabled and normal children. J School Psychol 1979; 107: 177–83

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Allan J. Jogging can modify disruptive behaviors. Teaching Exceptional Children 1980; 12: 66–70

    Google Scholar 

  150. Mender J, Kerr R, Orlick T. A cooperative games program for learning disabled children. Int J Sports Psychol 1982; 13: 222–33

    Google Scholar 

  151. Kerr R. Impact of a special physical activity program on learning disabled children. In: Partington JT, Orlick T, Salmela RH, editors. Sport in perspective. Ottawa: University of Ottawa, 1982: 206–7

    Google Scholar 

  152. MacMahon JR, Gross RT. Physical and psychological effects of aerobic exercise in boys with learning disabilities. Dev Behav Pediatr 8: 274–7

  153. Norris D, Boucher J. Observing children through their formative years. Toronto: Board of Education for the City of Toronto, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  154. Wessel JA, Kelly L. Achievement-based curriculum development in physical education. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1986: 62–5

    Google Scholar 

  155. Bouchard C, Shephard RJ, Stephens T. Physical activity: fitness and health. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1994

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Physical Activity Studies, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada

    Mary H. Bluechardt

  2. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

    J. Wiener

  3. School of Physical and Health Education, University of Toronto, 320 Huron St, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A1, Canada

    Roy J. Shephard

  4. Health Studies Program, Brock University, St Catherine’s, Ontario, Canada

    Roy J. Shephard

Authors
  1. Mary H. Bluechardt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. Wiener
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Roy J. Shephard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bluechardt, M.H., Wiener, J. & Shephard, R.J. Exercise Programmes in the Treatment of Children with Learning Disabilities. Sports Med 19, 55–72 (1995). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199519010-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199519010-00005

Keywords

Search

Navigation