Abstract
OBJECTIVES: Street-involved youth are highly vulnerable to violence. While involvement in income-generating activities within illicit drug scenes is recognized as shaping youths’ vulnerability to violence, the relative contributions of different income-generating activities remain understudied. We sought to examine the independent effects of drug dealing and sex work on experiencing violence among street-involved youth.
METHODS: Data were derived from a prospective cohort of street-involved youth aged 14–26 who used drugs in Vancouver, British Columbia, between September 2005 and May 2014. Multivariable generalized estimating equations were used to examine the impact of involvement in drug dealing and sex work on experiencing violence.
RESULTS: Among 1,152 participants, including 364 (31.6%) women, 740 (64.2%) reported having experienced violence at some point during the study period. In multivariable analysis, involvement in drug dealing but not sex work remained independently associated with experiencing violence among females (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 1.43; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.08–1.90) and males (AOR: 1.50; 95% CI: 1.25–1.80), while involvement in sex work only was not associated with violence among females (AOR: 1.15; 95% CI: 0.76–1.74) or males (AOR: 1.42; 95% CI: 0.81–2.48).
CONCLUSION: Findings indicate that involvement in drug dealing is a major factor associated with experiencing violence among our sample. In addition to conventional interventions, such as addiction treatment, novel approaches are needed to reduce the risk of violence for drug-using youth who are actively engaged in drug dealing. The potential for low-threshold employment and decriminalization of drug use to mitigate violence warrants further study.
Résumé
OBJECTIFS: Les jeunes de la rue sont très vulnérables à la violence. On reconnaît que la participation à des activités génératrices de revenus dans le monde de la drogue influence la vulnérabilité des jeunes à la violence, mais la contribution relative de diverses activités génératrices de revenus demeure sous-étudiée. Nous avons voulu examiner les effets indépendants du trafic de stupéfiants et du travail du sexe sur l’expérience de la violence chez les jeunes de la rue.
MÉTHODE: Nos données ont été obtenues auprès d’une cohorte prospective de jeunes de la rue de 14 à 26 ans consommant de la drogue à Vancouver (Colombie-Britannique) entre septembre 2005 et mai 2014. Des équations d’estimation généralisées multivariées ont servi à examiner l’impact de la participation au trafic de stupéfiants et au travail du sexe sur l’expérience de la violence.
RÉSULTATS: Sur les 1 152 participants, dont 364 femmes (31,6 %), 740 (64,2 %) ont déclaré avoir connu la violence durant la période de l’étude. Selon l’analyse multivariée, la participation au trafic de stupéfiants mais non au travail du sexe restait indépendamment associée à l’expérience de la violence chez les femmes (rapport de cotes ajusté [RCa]: 1,43; intervalle de confiance de 95 % [IC]: 1,08–1,90) et les hommes (RCa: 1,50; IC de 95 %: 1,25–1,80), tandis que la participation au travail du sexe seulement n’était associée à la violence ni chez les femmes (RCa: 1,15; IC de 95 %: 0,76–1,74), ni chez les hommes (RCa: 1,42; IC de 95 %: 0,81–2,48).
CONCLUSION: Ces constatations indiquent que la participation au trafic de stupéfiants est un important facteur associé à l’expérience de la violence dans notre échantillon. En plus d’interventions classiques comme le traitement des toxicomanies, il faudrait des approches novatrices pour réduire le risque de violence chez les jeunes qui consomment de la drogue et qui sont activement impliqués dans le trafic des stupéfiants. La possibilité que les emplois faiblement qualifiés et la décriminalisation de la consommation de drogue atténuent la violence mériterait d’être étudiée davantage.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Boivin J-F, Roy É, Haley N, Galbaud du Fort G. The health of street youth: A Canadian perspective. Can J Public Health 2005;96(6):432–37. PMID: 16350867.
Gaetz S. Coming of Age: Reimagining the Response to Youth Homelessness in Canada. Toronto, ON: Canadian Homelessness Research Network Press, 2014.
Gaetz S, Donaldson J, Richter T, Gulliver T. The State of Homelessness in Canada 2013. Toronto, ON: Canadian Homelessness Research Network Press, 2013.
Perreault S, Brennan S. Criminal victimization in Canada, 2009. Juristat 2010;30(2). Available at: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/85-002-x2010002-eng.htm (Accessed October 22, 2015).
Gaetz S. Safe streets for whom? Homeless youth, social exclusion, and criminal victimization. Can J Criminol Crim 2004;46(4):423–56. doi: 10.3138/cjccj.46.4.423.
Martin I, Palepu A, Wood E, Li K, Montaner J, Kerr T. Violence among street-involved youth: The role of methamphetamine. Eur Addict Res 2009; 15(1):32–38. PMID: 19052461. doi: 10.1159/000173007.
Krug EG, Mercy JA, Dahlberg LL, Zwi, AB. The world report on violence and health. Lancet 2002;360(9339):1083–88. PMID: 12384003. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11133-0.
Chen X, Thrane L, Whitbeck LB, Johnson KD, Hoyt, DR. Onset of conduct disorder, use of delinquent subsistence strategies, and street victimization among homeless and runaway adolescents in the Midwest. J Interpers Violence 2007;22(9):1156–83. PMID: 17704461. doi: 10.1177/0886260507303731.
Ferguson KM, Bender K, Thompson S, Xie B, Pollio D. Correlates of street-survival behaviors in homeless young adults in four U.S. cities. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2011;81(3):401–9. PMID: 21729020. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01108.x.
Wood E, Stoltz JA, Montaner JS, Kerr T. Evaluating methamphetamine use and risks of injection initiation among street youth: The ARYS study. Harm Reduct J 2006;3:18. PMID: 16723029. doi: 10.1186/1477-7517-3-18.
Rhodes T. The “risk environment”: A framework for understanding and reducing drug-related harm. Int J Drug Policy 2002;13(2):85–94. doi: 10.1016/S0955-3959(02)00007-5.
Uhlmann S, DeBeck K, Simo A, Kerr T, Montaner JSG, Wood E. Crystal methamphetamine initiation among street-involved youth. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2014;40(1):31–36. PMID: 24191637. doi: 10.3109/00952990.2013.836531.
Marshall BDL, Fairbairn N, Li K, Wood E, Kerr T. Physical violence among a prospective cohort of injection drug users: A gender-focused approach. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008;97(3):237–46. PMID: 18487025. doi: 10.1016/j. drugalcdep.2008.03.028.
Werb D, Bouchard M, Kerr T, Shoveller J, Qi J, Montaner J, Wood E. Drug dealing cessation among a cohort of drug users in Vancouver, Canada. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011;118(2–3):459–63. PMID: 21664770. doi: 10.1016/j. drugalcdep.2011.05.008.
Lake S, Wood E, Dong H, Dobrer S, Montaner J, Kerr T. The impact of childhood emotional abuse on violence among people who inject drugs. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34(1):4–9. PMID: 24635836. doi: 10.1111/dar.12133.
Maldonado G, Greenland S. Simulation study of confounder-selection strategies. Am J Epidemiol 1993;138(11):923–36. PMID: 8256780.
Weist MD, Acosta OM, Youngstrom, EA. Predictors of violence exposure among inner-city youth. J Clin Child Psychol 2001;30(2):187–98. PMID: 11393919. doi: 10.1207/S15374424JCCP3002_6.
Doherty EE, Robertson JA, Green KM, Fothergill KE, Ensminger, ME. A longitudinal study of substance use and violent victimization in adulthood among a cohort of urban African Americans. Addiction 2012;107(2):339–48. PMID: 21939463. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03665.x.
Werb D, Kerr T, Li K, Montaner J, Wood E. Risks surrounding drug trade involvement among street-involved youth. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2008; 34(6):810–20. PMID: 19016187. doi: 10.1080/00952990802491589.
Kerr T, Small W, Johnston C, Li K, Montaner JS, Wood E. Characteristics of injection drug users who participate in drug dealing: Implications for drug policy. J Psychoactive Drugs 2008;40(2):147–52. PMID: 18720663. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2008.10400624.
Fast D, Small W, Krusi A, Wood E, Kerr T. “I guess my own fancy screwed me over”: Transitions in drug use and the context of choice among young people entrenched in an open drug scene. BMC Public Health 2010;10(1):126. PMID: 20222984. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-10-126.
Johnson BD, Golub A. The potential for accurately measuring behavioral and economic dimensions of consumption, prices, and markets for illegal drugs. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007;90(Suppl 1):S16–26. PMID: 16978801. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.08.005.
Small W, Maher L, Lawlor J, Wood E, Shannon K, Kerr T. Injection drug users’ involvement in drug dealing in the downtown eastside of Vancouver: Social organization and systemic violence. Int J Drug Policy 2013;24(5):479–87. PMID: 23664788. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.03.006.
Decker MR, Crago A-L, Chu SKH, Sherman SG, Seshu MS, Buthelezi K, et al. Human rights violations against sex workers: Burden and effect on HIV. Lancet 2015;385(9963):186–99. PMID: 25059943. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60800-X.
O’Brien K, Daffern M, Chu CM, Thomas SDM. Youth gang affiliation, violence, and criminal activities: A review of motivational, risk, and protective factors. Aggress Violent Behav 2013;18(4):417–25. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2013.05.001.
Marshall BDL, DeBeck K, Simo A, Kerr T, Wood E. Gang involvement among street-involved youth in a Canadian setting: A gender-based analysis. Public Health 2015;129(1):74–77. PMID: 25542743. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2014.10.017.
Richardson L, Wood E, Montaner J, Kerr T. Addiction treatment-related employment barriers: The impact of methadone maintenance. J Subst Abuse Treat 2012;43(3):276–84. PMID: 22301085. doi: 10.1016/j.jsat.2011.12.008.
Richardson L, Sherman SG, Kerr T. Employment amongst people who use drugs: A new arena for research and intervention? Int J Drug Policy 2012; 23(1):3–5. PMID: 21996164. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.08.004.
Werb D, Rowell G, Guyatt G, Kerr T, Montaner J, Wood E. Effect of drug law enforcement on drug market violence: A systematic review. Int J Drug Policy 2011;22(2):87–94. PMID: 21392957. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.02.002.
Darke S. Self-report among injecting drug users: A review. Drug Alcohol Depend 1998;51(3):253–63; discussion 267–68. PMID: 9787998. doi: 10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00028-3.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Conflict of Interest: None to declare.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hayashi, K., Daly-Grafstein, B., Dong, H. et al. The relationship between violence and engagement in drug dealing and sex work among street-involved youth. Can J Public Health 107, e88–e93 (2016). https://doi.org/10.17269/cjph.107.5219
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17269/cjph.107.5219