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An Agent-Based Model of Ethnocentrism and the Unintended Consequences of Violence

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Abstract

We repurpose an agent-based model of ethnocentrism to show how violence affects people’s willingness to cooperate with members of other groups. We account for extra benefits which arise from interacting with a member of the same culture (‘cultural boosts’) and for mutual gains from cooperative activities (‘public goods’). In environments where one person gains at another’s expense, violence decreases ethnocentrism. However, violence increases ethnocentric behavior when cooperation produces shared benefits. These results point to new empirical questions and contribute to policy discussions regarding the use and reduction of violence.

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Notes

  1. Leeson (2005, p. 76) discusses possible reverse causality in the context of institutions and fractionalization, addressing ‘Easterly (2001) who considers the role of institutions in mitigating fractionalization’ by considering ‘the arrow of causation running from low-quality government (i.e., one with poor institutions) to increased fractionalization.’ The current study similarly seeks to answer the question of flow with the narrower focus of violence as it relates to fractionalization along ethnic lines.

  2. See Zak and Knack (2001) and Beugelsdijk et al. (2004).

  3. For example, Landa (1981, p. 350) suggests that an ‘ethnically homogenous middle man group’ functions as ‘a low-cost club-like institutional arrangement, serving as an alternative to contract law and the vertically integrated firm, which emerged to economize on contract enforcement and information costs in an environment where the legal infrastructure was not well developed.’ Leeson (2005, p. 162) also notes that in ‘small, homogeneous social groups, in which the social distance between actors is minimal, individuals can rely on reputational mechanisms of ex post enforcement to ensure cooperation. The smallness and homogeneity of the group enable the effective flow of information about individuals’ past conduct among its members.’

  4. ‘Worse outcomes’ in this sense refer to injuries which could have been treated were there no shortage in the availability of health care go untreated, resulting in more costly future treatment or permanent disability. This affects those with ailments not related to violence as well.

  5. Studies such as Nafziger and Auvinen (2002), Abadie and Gardeazabal (2003), Blomberg et al. (2004) and Gates et al. (2012) show empirically that GDP growth and economic development are lower in violent environments. The causal link is difficult to establish: Does violence lead to poor economic outcomes, or do poor economic outcomes produce violence, or both? We do not attempt to identify causality here, we only point out that the negative consequences of violence are consistent with causing worse economic performance.

  6. Children that grow up in a violent atmosphere are more likely to have discipline problems; a ‘culture of violence’ is accepted.

  7. For example, R&D in firearm production may produce new technologies that can be used in the metalworking industry. However, spending in these areas may have offsetting costs associated with technological adoption (see Duncan and Coyne 2013).

  8. A text by Westneat and Fox (2010) on behavioral ecology provides a concise introduction to this field of study.

  9. Mihalyi (1984–1985, p. 101) posits that ‘the basic motivations and reasonings for group identification and cohesion may have been formed chiefly as defensive measures against the past, present and expected future negative experiences. In this context, a specific ethnic group is best defined as a social community sharing a common culture which, when the chips are down, commands the loyalty of the members.’

  10. There are 2601 patches in the torus used here, which is the population maximum.

  11. Lima et al. (2009) show that the ethnocentric strategy prevails even if agents are provided the ability to reproduce sexually according to decision pairs.

  12. There is an equal (25%) probability of being assigned each of the four colors. There is also an equal probability (50%) of receiving a C or a D for each of the positions in the strategy pair. (Therefore, there is an equal 25% chance of receiving each of the four strategy combinations.)

  13. Immigration ensures the population of the virtual world is never zero. Immigrants are assigned a random color and strategy pair as was done for the initial population.

  14. In the gridded virtual world, an agent has a maximum of four direct neighbors which are located in the patches above, below, to the right and to the left. Agents located on the diagonal are excluded. For example, the agent in the center patch (black) below is surrounded by five other agents, three of which are direct neighbors (white).

    figure a

  15. Mutation is determined also by random draw. A random number between 0 and 1 is drawn; if that number is less than m, then mutation will occur.

  16. Balliet et al (2014) and Caporael (2007) note the importance of group activity for reproduction and sustaining within the human group, suggesting that a social species does receive benefit from in-group behaviors.

  17. The activities that occur during the transition periods (1500–2500) are left for a separate study.

  18. The activities that occur during the transition periods (1500–2500) are left for a separate study.

  19. Every ten periods between period 2500 and 4000.

  20. This must be done with care as increasing the radius too much will kill too many agents, resulting in near extinction. Investigating this is left for future work.

  21. In the Hammond and Axelrod (2006) model of what we term ‘charity environments,’ ethnocentric behavior functions as a solution to the problem of free riding. In the public goods or ‘investment environments,’ free riding will be less of a concern as both the giver and the receiver benefit.

  22. The perception can either be a perceived benefit to cooperation with like types or a perceived cost to cooperation with non-like types; it is the relative difference that matters.

  23. We considered a preliminary modification to our model. The modification changed the bombing algorithm so that bombs are launched by types that do not cooperate with outsiders. These bombs hit nearby agents of a different color than the agent that launched the bomb. The bombing originates with aggressive types and hits only local ‘outsiders.’ The results show that cooperation eventually emerges in this modification as bombs ultimately kill all the agent types that would be launching bombs. The result of this modification is not a significant departure from the base model, though the dynamics of equilibration differ.

  24. Mihalyi (1984–1985, p. 98) notes similar increases in ethnocentric attitudes in Germany following both the France–Prussian war of 1870 and following Germany’s defeat in World War I.

  25. For example, we considered a modification that imposed some spillover where agents located near a bomb zone become less cooperative with outsiders (switch their type to no-cooperation-with-outsiders). As expected, ethnocentrism comes to dominate in this specification. As a bomb explodes, many agents near the vacant space become ethnocentric, and these agents then reproduce to fill the area. The output for this modification supports the statement that ‘violence worsens ethnocentrism,’ but this result is somewhat forced by design. Incorporating this type of spillover without predetermining the model’s results is a challenge requiring further study.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Economics, George Mason University, Buchanan Hall D150, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA

    William D. Tilson

  2. Department of Economic, Radford University, P.O. Box 6952, Radford, VA, 24142, USA

    Thomas K. Duncan & Daniel Farhat

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  1. William D. Tilson
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  2. Thomas K. Duncan
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Correspondence to Thomas K. Duncan.

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Tilson, W.D., Duncan, T.K. & Farhat, D. An Agent-Based Model of Ethnocentrism and the Unintended Consequences of Violence. Eastern Econ J 46, 483–503 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41302-019-00151-6

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