Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of the Positive Action Program on Achievement and Discipline: Two Matched-Control Comparisons

  • Published:
Prevention Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper reports on the effectiveness of an integrated comprehensive school model for character development, problem behavior prevention, and academic achievement enhancement. The Positive Action program consists of a school curriculum, together with schoolwide climate, family, and community components. As evaluated here, the yearly K-6 curriculum consists of over 140 fifteen-to-twenty-minute lessons per year delivered in school classrooms on an almost daily basis. The program is based on theories of self-concept, learning, behavior, and school ecology. We use a matched control design and school-level achievement and disciplinary data to evaluate program effects on student performance and behavior in two separate school districts. The program improved achievement by 16% in one district and 52% in another, and reduced disciplinary referrals by 78% in one district and 85% in the other. We discuss implications of these replicated findings for the prevention of substance abuse and violence, the improvement of school performance, and the reform of American schools.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Akers, R. L. (1977). Deviant behavior: A social learning approach (2nd ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akers, R. L. (1998). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Boston: Northeastern University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allred, C. G. (1984a). The development and evaluation of Positive Action: A systematic elementary school self-concept enhancement curriculum, 1977–1983. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allred, C. G. (1984b). The Positive Action program: An evaluation. Honolulu, HI: Royal School, Honolulu School District.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allred, C. G. (1987). Positive Action Principal's Kit. Twin Falls, ID: The Positive Action Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allred, C.G. (1995). Positive Actions for Living. Twin Falls, ID: The Positive Action Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allred, C.G. (1997). Positive Action Counselor's Kit. Twin Falls, ID: The Positive Action Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allred, C. G. (1998a). Positive Action Community Kit. Twin Falls, ID: The Positive Action Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allred, C. G. (1998b). Using Positive Action for the prevention, intervention and treatment of youth at risk. In R. Warkentin & D. Rea (Eds.), Youth-adult partnerships: Unity in diversity (pp. 35–40). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, L., & Trawick-Smith, J. (1996). An ecological model for early childhood violence prevention. In R. L. Hampton, P. Jenkins, & T. P. Gullotta (Eds), Preventing violence in America: Issues in children's and families' lives(Vol. 4, pp. 233– 261).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977a). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977b). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted impact of self-efficacy beliefs on academic functioning. Child Development, 67, 1206–1222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, P. E., Coley, R. J., & Wenglinsky, H. (1998). Order in the classroom: Violence, discipline and student achievement. Princeton, NJ: Policy Information Center, Educational Testing Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battistich, V., & Hom, A. (1997). The relationship between student's sense of their school as a community and their involvement in problem behavior. American Journal of Public Health, 87(12), 1997–2001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battistich, V., Schaps, E., Watson, M., & Solomon, D. (1996). Prevention effects of the Child Development Project: Early findings from an ongoing multisite demonstration trial. Journal of Adolescent Research, 11(1), 12–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battistich, V., Schaps, E., Watson, M., Solomon, D., & Lewis, C. (2000). Effects of the Child Development Project on students' drug use and other problem behaviors. Journal of Primary Prevention, 21(1), 75–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, B. S. (1981). All our children learning. New York: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, B. S. (1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives, book 1. New York: Longman Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. (1996). Substance abuse prevention through Life Skills Training. In R. D. Peters & R. J. McMahon (Eds.), Preventing childhood disorders, substance abuse, and delinquency. (pp. 215–240). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Banff International Science Series, Vol. 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bracken, B. A. (1992). Multidimensional self-concept scale examiner's manual. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, A., Schulenberg, J., Bachman, J. G., O'Malley, P. M., & Johnston, L. D. (2000). Understanding the links among school misbehavior, academic achievement, and cigarette use: A national panel study of adolescents. Prevention Science, 1(2), 71–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bulach, C., Malone, B., & Castleman, C. (1995). Investigation of variables related to student achievement. Mid-Western Educational Researcher, 8(2), 23–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burcham, S. (1992). Improving the academic self-esteem of elementary students (p. 119). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nova University, Fort Lauderdale, FL.

  • Caine, R. N., & Caine, G. (1997). Education on the edge of possibility. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, B., & Cairns, R. (1999). Paper presented at the Life History Society meetings, Kauai, HI, September 1999.

  • Center for Substance Abuse Prevention. (1997). Reducing tobacco use among youth: Community-based approaches.Prevention Enhancement Protocols Systems. DHHS Publication No. SMA 97-3146). Washington, DC: USDHHS, SAMHA, CSAP.

    Google Scholar 

  • Center for Substance Abuse Prevention. (2000). National registry on effective prevention programs: The substance abuse data matrix. USDHHS, SAMHA, CSAP, Washington, DC, September 2000. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/CSAP/modelprograms.

    Google Scholar 

  • Center for the Study and Prevention ofViolence. (1998). Blueprints. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Institute for Behavioral Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). CDC surveillance summaries, August 14, 1998. MMW 47 (no. SS-3).

  • Chandler, K. A., Chapman, C. D., Rand, M. R., & Taylor, B. M. (1998). Student's report on school crime: 1989 and 1995 (NCES 98-241/NCJ-169607). Washington, DC: U.S. Departments of Education and Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Character Education Partnership. (2000). Character education resource guide. Washington, DC: Character Education Partnership.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J., Campbell, E., Hobson, C., McPartland, J., Mood, A., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Combs, A. (1962). Perceiving, behaving, becoming: A new focus for educators. ASCD 1962 Yearbook. Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Comer, J. P. (1988). Educating poor minority children. Scientific American, 259(5), 42–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coopersmith, S., & Gilberts, R. (1981). Behavioral academic selfesteem: Arating scale. Palo Alto,CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cottrell, M. C. (1980). The Positive Action program: An evaluation. Twin Falls, ID: Twin Falls School District.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crump, R., Lillie-Blanton, M., and Anthony, J. (1997). The in-fluence of self-esteem on smoking among African–American school children. Journal of Drug Education, 27(3), 277–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • CSAP (2001). Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, Washington. DC,CSAP's Prevention Portal: Model Programs, http://www.samhsa.gov/centers/csap/modelprograms/.

  • Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, NY: Avon Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dauber, S. L., & Epstein, J. L. (1989). Parent's attitudes and practices of involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. Report No. 33, The Johns Hopkins University, Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools, Baltimore, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derzon, J. H., & Lipsey, M. W. (1998). A synthesis of the relationship of marijuana use with delinquent and problem behaviors. School Psychology International, 20(1), 57–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derzon, J. H., Wilson, S. J., & Cunningham, C. A. (1999). The effectiveness of school-based interventions for preventing and reducing violence. Center for Evaluation Research and Methodology, Vanderbilt University.

  • Donahue, P. L., Voelkl, K. E., Campbell, J. R., & Mazzeo, J. (1999). NAEP 1998 reading report card for the nation and the states [on-line]. Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ pubs/main1998/1999500.html.

  • Drug Strategies. (1996). Making the grade: A guide to school drug prevention programs (pp. 21–24).Washington, DC: Drug Strategies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drug Strategies. (1998). Safe schools, safe students: A guide to violence prevention strategies (pp. 34, 37, 39). Washington, DC: Drug Strategies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dryfoos, J. D. (1990). Adolescents at risk: Prevalence and prevention. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Education Commission of the States. (1999). Promising practices for comprehensive school reform. Education Commission of the States, Denver, CO, October 1999. Available at: http://www.ecs.org/ecs/ecsweb.nsf

    Google Scholar 

  • Elias, M. J., Gara, M., Schuyler, T., Branden-Muller, L., & Sayette, M. (1991). The promotion of social competence: Longitudinal study of a preventive school-based program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 409–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eron, L. D., Gentry, J. H., & Schlegel, P. (1994). Reason to hope: A psychosocial perspective on violence and youth. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Filozof, E., Albertin, H., Jones, C., Sterne, S., Myers, L., & McDermott, R. (1998). Relationship of adolescent self-esteem to selected academic variables. Journal of School Health, 68(2), 68–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flay, B.R. (1985). Psychosocial approaches to smoking prevention: A review of findings. Health Psychology, 4(5), 449–488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flay, B. R. (1986). Efficacy and effectiveness trials (and other phases of research) in the development of health promotion programs. Preventive Medicine, 15, 451–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flay, B. R. (2000). Approaches to substance use prevention utilizing school curriculum plus social environment change. Addictive Behaviors, 25(6): 861–885.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flay, B. R., Koepke, D., Thomson, S. J., Santi, S., Best, J. A., & Brown, K. S. (1989). Six-year follow-up of the first Waterloo School Smoking Prevention Trial. American Journal of Public Health, 79(10), 1371–1376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flay, B. R., & Ordway, N. (1999). Changes in school-level percentile rankings as a measure of effectiveness. Unpublished report, University of Illinois at Chicago.

  • Flay, B. R., & Petraitis, J. (1994). The theory of triadic influence: A new theory of health behavior with implications for preventive interventions. In G. S. Albrecht (Ed.), Advances in medical sociology, Vol. IV: A Reconsideration of models of health behavior change (pp. 19–44). Greenwich, CN: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2000). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention andTreatment [on-line] 3, article 0001a, March 7, 2000. Available at: http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html.

  • Furlong, M., Casas, J., Corral, C., Chung, A. & Bates, M. (1997). Drugs and school violence. Education and Treatment of Children, 20(3), 263–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardener,H. (1991). The unschooled mind:Howchildren think and how schools should teach. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorsky, R. A. (1996). Resource reviews: Positive Actions For Living. American Journal of Health Promotion, 11(1), 15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottfredson, D. C. (1986). An empirical test of school-based environmental & individual interventions to reduce the risk of delinquent behavior. Criminology, 24(4), 705–731.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottfredson, D. C. (1990). Changing school structures to benefit high-risk youth. In P. E. Leone (Ed.), Understanding troubled and troubling youth: Multidisciplinary perspectives. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottfredson, D. C., Gottfredson, G. D., & Skroban, S. (1998). Can prevention work where it is needed most? Evaluation Review, 22(3), 315–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, J. (1996). Relation of parental environment, empowerment, and school traits to student academic performance. Journal of Educational Research, 90(1), 33–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, J. (1998). The relation of school structure and social environment to parent involvement in elementary schools. The Elementary School Journal, 90(1), 53–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamachek, D. (1995). Self-concept and school achievement: Interaction dynamics and a tool for assessing the self-concept component. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73(4), 419–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, W. B. (1992). School-based substance abuse prevention:A review of the state of the art in curriculum, 1980–1990. Health Education Research, 7(3), 403–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansford, B. C., & Hattie, J. A. (1982). The relationship between self and achievement/performance measures. Review of Educational Research, 52(1), 123–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 153, 226–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Morrison, D. M., O'Donnell, J., Abbott, R. D., & Day, L. E. (1992). The Seattle Social Development Project: Effects of the first four years on protective factors and problem behaviors. In: J. McCord & R. E. Tremblay (Eds.), Preventing antisocial behavior: Interventions from birth through adolescence (pp. 139–161). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., & Weis, J. G. (1985). The social development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6, 73–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hay, I., Ashman, A. F., & Van Kraayenoord, C. E. (1998). Educational characteristics of students with high or low self-concept. Psychology in the Schools, 35(4), 391–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, N. M., & Comer, J. P. (1996). Integrating schools, families, and communities through successful school reform: The School Development Program. School Psychology Review, 25(4), 501–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, N. M., Comer, J. P., & Hamilton-Lee, M. (1989). School climate enhancement through parental involvement. Journal of School Psychology, 27, 87–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, N. M., Emmons, C., & Ben-Avie, M. (1997). School climate as a factor in student adjustment and achievement. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 3, 321–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, D., Smit, E., & Crist, J. (1995). Reciprocal effects of selfconcept and academic achievement in sixth and seventh grade. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24(3), 295–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jang, S. J., & Thornberry, T. P. (1998). Self-esteem, delinquent peers, and delinquency: A test of the self-enhancement thesis. American Sociological Review, 63, 586–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (1998). National survey results on drug use from the Monitoring the Future Study, 1975–1997. Washington DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse, U.S.D.H.H.S., Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, S., & Heaven, P. (1998). Psychosocial correlates of adolescent drug-taking behaviour. Journal of Adolescence, 21(2), 127–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellam, S. G., & Anthony, J. C. (1998). Targeting early antecedents to prevent tobacco smoking: Findings from an epidemiologically based randomized field trial. American Journal of Public Health, 88(10), 1490–1495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellam, S. G., Rebok, G. W., Ialongo, N., & Mayer, L. S. (1994). The course and malleability of aggressive behavior from early first grade into middle school: Results of a developmental epidemiologically-based preventive trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 35, 259–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loveland-Cherry, C., Leech, S., Laetz, V., & Dielman, T. (1996). Correlates of alcohol use and misuse in fourth grade children: Psychosocial, peer, parental, and family factors. Health Education Quarterly, 23(4), 497–511.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J. D., & Hoge, D. R. (1984). The dynamic of self-esteem and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 396–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire, P. A. (1998). School-based prevention: One size does not fit all. APA Monitor, 29(10).

  • Moore, S., Laflin, M., & Weis, D. (1996). The role of cultural norms in the self-esteem and drug use relationship. Adolescence, 31, 523–542.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mrazek, P. J., & Haggerty, R. J. (Eds.). (1994). Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, D. M., Pirie, P., Luepker, R. V., & Pallonen, U. (1989). Fiveand-six-year follow-up results from four seventh-grade smoking prevention strategies. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 12(2), 207–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers, D., Milne, A., Baker, K., & Ginsburg, A. (1987). Student discipline and high school performance. Sociology of Education, 60, 18–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Education Association. (1998). Keys to excellence for your school. FromNEAWeb site http://www.newhorizons.org/restr neakeys.html.

  • National Education Goals Panel. (1998). Mathematics and science achievement state by state, 1998. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (1999). Catalog of school reform models. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, January 1999. Available at: hauhttp://www.nwrel.org/scpd/natspec/catalog/ (See write-up for Positive Action at http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/natspec/catalog/positive.htm).

  • O'Donnell, J., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Abbott, R. D., & Day, L. E. (1995). Preventing school failure, drug use, and delinquency among low-income children: Long-term intervention in elementary schools. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65(1), 87–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulson, M., Coombs, R., & Richardson, M. (1990). School performance, academic aspirations, and drug use among children and adolescents. Journal of Drug Education, 20(4), 289–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, R. D., & McMahon, R. J. (Eds.). (1996). Preventing childhood disorders, substance abuse, and delinquency. (pp. 215–240). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Banff International Science Series, Vol. 3.

  • Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., & Miller, T. Q. (1995). Reviewing the theories of adolescent substance abuse: Organizing pieces of the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 67–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • President Clinton's State of the Union addresses (1999, 2000). http://clinton3.nara.gov/WH/.

  • Price, R. H., Cowen, E. L., Lorion, R. P., & Ramos-McKay, J. (1988). Fourteen ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Purkey, W. W. (1970). Self-concept and school achievement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Purkey, W., & Novak, J. (1984). Inviting school success: A selfconcept approach to teaching and learning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, A. J., & Roth, J. A. (Eds.). (1993). Understanding and preventing violence.Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rigby, K., & Cox, I. (1996). The contribution of bullying at school and low self-esteem to acts of delinquency among Australian teenagers. Personality and Individual Differences, 21(4), 609–612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimore, P., & Ouston, J. (1979). Fifteen thousand hours. London: Open Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Safe, Disciplined and Drug Free Schools (2001) US Department of Education., Washington, DC, Exemplary and Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools Programs, www.ed.gov/offices/OESE/SDFS/programs.html.

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). What is the ‘good life’? APA Monitor October 1998 p. 2.

  • Shaver, J. P. (1982). Independent evaluation of four replicated sites for the Positive Action Program—Final report. Logan, UT: Wasatch Institute for Research and Evaluation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaver, A., & Walls, R. T. (1998). Effect of Title 1 parent involvement on student reading and mathematics achievement. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 31(2), 90–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons-Morton, B.G., Crump, A. D., Haynie, D. L., & Saylor, K. E. (1999). Student-school bonding and adolescent problem behavior. Health Education Research, 14(1), 99–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skaalvik, E. M., & Valas, H. (1999). Relations among achievement, self-concept, and motivation in mathematics and language arts: A longitudinal study. The Journal of Experimental Education, 67(2), 135–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slaby, R., Barham, J., Eron, L., & Wilcox, B. (1994). Recommendations: Prevention and treatment of youth violence. In L. D. Eron, J. H. Gentry, & P. Schlegel (Eds.), Reason to hope: A psychological perspective on violence & youth (pp. 447–461). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavin, R. E., & Fashola, O. S. (1998). Showme the evidence! Proven and promising programs for America's schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sloboda, Z., & David, S. L. (1997). Preventing drug use among children and adolescents: A research-based guide (NIH publication No. 97-4212). National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD.

  • St Leger, L. H. (1999). The opportunities and effectiveness of the health promoting primary school in improving child health—a review of the claims and evidence. Health Education Research, 14(1), 51–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson, D. (1978). Evaluation of the Twin Falls Positive Action program 1977–78. Twin Falls, ID: College of Southern Idaho.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson, D. (1979). Evaluation of theTwinFalls primaryPositive Action program 1978–79. Twin Falls, ID: College of Southern Idaho.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sui-Chu, E., & Willms, J. D. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement. Sociology Quarterly, 69, 126–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, S., Dent, C. W., Burton, D., Stacy, A. W., & Flay, B. R. (1995). Developing school-based tobacco use prevention and cessation programs. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Symons, C. W., Cinelli, B., James, T. C., & Groff, P. (1997). Bridging student health risks and academic achievement through comprehensive school health programs. Journal of School Health, 67(6), 220–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Title I (1999). Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, Catalog of Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration Programs for improving academic achievement (US Department of Education, Title I). www.nwrel.org/scpd.natspec/catalog.

  • Tobler, N. S. (1986). Meta-analysis of 143 adolescent drug prevention programs: Quantitative outcome results of program participants compared to a control or comparison group. Journal of Drug Issues, 16(4), 537–567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobler, N. S. (1992). Drug prevention programs can work: Research findings. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 11(3), 1–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobler, N. S., & Stratton, H. H. (1997). Effectiveness of schoolbased drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 18(1), 71–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tolan, P., & Guerra, N. (1994). What works in reducing adolescent violence: An empirical review of the field. Boulder, CO: The Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Sciences, University of Colorado.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education. (1997). What really matters in American Education: White paper prepared for U.S. Secretary of Education RichardW. Riley for speech at the National Press Club,Washington, DC.

  • U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1998). Violence and discipline problems inU.S. public schools: 1996–1997 (NCES 98-030). By Sheila Heaviside, Cassandra Rowand, Catrina Williams, and Elizabeth Farris. Projects Officers, Shelley Burns and Edith McArthur.Washington, DC.

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1994). Preventing tobacco use among young people: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: Office on Smoking or Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, J. R. (1996). Improving academic achievement of fourthgrade students through a program of self-concept enhancement activities. Unpublished doctoral practicum report, Nova Southeastern University, Jacksonville, FL.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Health Research and Policy Centers, School of Public Health, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois

    Brian R. Flay & Nicole Ordway

  2. Positive Action, Inc., Twin Falls, Idaho

    Carol G. Allred

Authors
  1. Brian R. Flay
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Carol G. Allred
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nicole Ordway
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Flay, B.R., Allred, C.G. & Ordway, N. Effects of the Positive Action Program on Achievement and Discipline: Two Matched-Control Comparisons. Prev Sci 2, 71–89 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011591613728

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011591613728

Search

Navigation