Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka

Streifverhalten des asiatischen Elefanten in Sri Lanka

  • Original Investigation
  • Published:
Mammalian Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We studied the ranging patterns of 10 elephants in and around the Yala protected area complex, southern Sri Lanka, using VHF radio telemetry. All tracked elephants displayed similar ranging patterns. The observed home ranges were small (mean = 115.2±64.0 km2) relative to reported home ranges in India, possibly in response to high habitat productivity and abundant perennial water sources. Elephants showed high fidelity to their ranges. Home ranges had relatively large core areas, suggesting intensive use of habitat. No geographically distinct seasonal ranges or migratory behavior was observed. Home range overlap was high, and territoriality was absent. Male musth ranges were considerably larger than non-musth ranges and may signify mate searching. Most elephants ranged both in and outside protected areas, suggesting that resources outside protected areas were important for their survival. Thus, translocating and restricting elephants to protected areas will be detrimental to their survival, as it limits resource access. The ranging patterns of Asian elephants suggest that conservation of the species requires their management both in and outside protected areas.

Zusammenfassung

Mittels VHF Telemetrie untersuchten wir die Streifgebiete von 10 Elefanten in und um den Yala Nationalpark im Süden Sri Lankas. Alle besenderten Elefanten zeigten ähnliche Bewegungsmuster. Im Vergleich zu Indien waren die beobachteten Reviere in Sri Lanka relativ klein (115.2±64.0 km2). Dies ist vermutlich eine Folge der hohen Habitatsproduktivität und der ganzjährigen Verfügbarkeit von Wasser in Sri Lanka. Die Elefanten zeigten sich ihrem Revier sehr treu. Die Streifgebiete hatten relativ grosse Aktivitätszentren, was auf eine intensive Nutzung des Habitats hindeutet. Es wurden weder geografisch unterschiedliche saisonale Reviere noch Migrationen beobachtet. Die Überlappung der Reviere war gross, und Territorialität war nicht vorhanden. Die Steifgebiete der Männchen in Musth waren deutlich grösser als die Gebiete ausserhalb der Musth. Die Ursache dafür könnte die Suche nach einem paarungsbereiten Weibchen sein. Die meisten Elefanten hielten sich sowohl innerhalb als auch ausserhalb des Yala Nationalparks auf, was darauf hinweist, dass die Gebiete ausserhalb des Parks für ihr Überleben wichtig sind. Demzufolge gefährden Umsiedlungen und Restriktion auf die Naturschutzgebiete das Überleben der Elefanten, da der Zugang zu den Ressourcen ausserhalb des Parks verwehrt wird. Die Bewegungsmuster der Elefanten deuten darauf hin, dass zur Arterhaltung Gebiete innerhalb und ausserhalb der Nationalparks berücksichtigt werden müssen.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Barnes, R.F.W., 1982. Mate searching behaviour of elephant bulls in a semi-arid environment. Anim. Behav. 30, 1217–1223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baskaran, N., Desai, A.A., 1996. Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve, South India. Gajah 15, 41–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baskaran, N., Balasubramanian, M., Swaminathan, S., Desai, A.J., 1993. Home range of elephants in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, South India. In: Daniel, J.C., Datye, H. (Eds.), A Week With Elephants. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Natural History Society, Oxford University Press, Bombay, pp. 298–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belcher, C.A., Darrant, J.P., 2004. Home range and spatial organization of the marsupial carnivore, Dasyurus maculatus maculatus (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) in south-eastern Australia. J. Zool. 262, 271–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burt, W.H., 1943. Territoriality and home range concepts as applied to mammals. J. Mammal. 24, 346–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, F.L., MacMillen, R.E., 1976. Threshold model of feeding territoriality and test with a Hawaiian honeycreeper. Science 194, 639–642.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T.H., Harvey, P.H., 1978. Mammals, resources and reproductive strategies. Nature 273, 191–195.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T.H., Harvey, P.H., Rudder, B., 1977. Sexual dimorphism, socionomic sex ratio and body weight in primates. Nature 269, 797–800.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dahle, B., Swenson, J.E., 2003. Home ranges in adult Scandinavian brown bears (Ursus arctos): effect of mass, sex, reproductive category, population density and habitat type. J. Zool. 260, 329–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Datye, H.S., Bhagwat, A.M., 1995. Home range of elephants in fragmented habitats of central India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desai, A.A., 1991. The home range of elephants and its implications for management of Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 88, 145–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Villiers, P.A., Kok, O.B., 1997. Home range, association and related aspects of elephants in the eastern Transvaal Lowveld. Afr. J. Ecol. 35, 224–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Douglas-Hamilton, I., 1973. On the ecology and behaviour of the lake Manyara elephants. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 11, 401–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunham, K.M., 1986. Movements of elephant cows in the unflooded middle Zambezi valley, Zimbabwe. Afr. J. Ecol. 24, 287–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Easa, P.S., 1988. Movement pattern of Asiatic elephant, Elephas maximus in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. Kerala Forest Research Institute Research Report 54 (Summary). Kerala Forest Research Institute, India.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, J.F., Lockhart, M., 1972. An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu national park, Ceylon. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology No. 101.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, J.F., McKay, G.M., Jainudeen, M.R., 1971. Reproductive behaviour of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus L.). Behaviour 38, 193–225.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernando, P., 1997. Keeping jumbo afloat: is translocation an answer to the human-elephant conflict? Sri Lanka Nature 1, 4–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernando, P., 2000. Elephants in Sri Lanka: past, present, and futur. Loris 22, 38–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernando, P., Lande, R., 2000. Molecular genetic and behavioral analyses of social organization in the Asian elephant. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 48, 84–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernando, P., Wickramanayake, E., Weerakoon, D., Jaya-singhe, L.K.A., Gunawardene, M., Janaka, H.K., 2005. Perceptions and patterns in human-elephant conflict in old and new settlements in Sri Lanka: insights for mitigation and management. Biodiv. Conserv. 14, 2465–2481.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, D.O., Owens, I.P.F., 2000. Female home range size and the evolution of social organization in macropod marsupials. J. Anim. Ecol. 69, 1083–1098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galanti, V., Preatoni, D., Martinoli, A., Wauters, L.A., Tosi, G., 2006. Space and habitat use of the African elephant in the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem, Tanzania: implications for conservation. Mamm. Biol. 71, 99–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganswindt, A., Rasmussen, H.B., Heistermann, M., Hodges, J.K., 2005. The sexually active states of free-ranging male African elephants (Loxodonta africana): defining musth and non-musth using endocrinology, physical signals, and behavior. Horm. Behav. 47, 83–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grainger, M., van Aarde, R., Whyte, I., 2005. Landscape heterogeneity and the use of space by elephants in the Kruger national park, South Africa. Afr. J. Ecol. 43, 369–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harestad, A.S., Bunnell, F.L., 1979. Home range and body weight - a re-evaluation. Ecology 60, 389–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishwaran, N., 1983. Elephant and woody-plant relationships in Gal Oya, Sri Lanka. Biol. Conserv. 26, 255–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jayewardene, J., 1994. The Elephant in Sri Lanka. The Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joshua, J., Johnsingh, A.J.T., 1993. Ranging patterns of elephants in Rajaji National Park: implications for reserve design. In: Daniel, J.C., Datye, H. (Eds.), A Week with Elephants. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society, Oxford University Press, Bombay, pp. 256–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kie, J.G., Baldwin, J.A., Evans, C.J., 1996. CALHOME: a program for estimating animal home ranges. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 24, 342–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laundre, J.W., Keller, B.L., 1984. Home range size of coyotes: a critical review. J. Wildl. Manage. 48, 127–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leimgruber, P., Gagnon, J.B., Wemmer, C., Kelly, D.S., Songer, M.A., Selig, E.R., 2003. Fragmentation of Asia’s remaining wildlands: implications for Asian elephant conservation. Anim. Conserv. 6, 347–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindeque, M., Lindeque, P.M., 1991. Satellite tracking of elephants in northwestern Namibia. Afr. J. Ecol. 29, 196–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindstedt, S.L., Miller, B.J., Buskirk, S.W., 1986. Home range, time, and body size in mammals. Ecology 67, 413–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay, G.M., 1973. Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in southeastern Ceylon. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology No. 125.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mohr, C.O., 1947. Table of equivalent populations of North American mammals. Am. Midland Nat. 37, 223–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moss, C.J., Poole, J.H., 1983. Relationships and social structure of African elephants. In: Hinde, R.A. (Ed.), Primate Social Relationships. Blackwell Science Publications, pp. 315–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller-Dombois, D., 1972. Crown distortion and elephant distribution in the woody vegetations of Ruhuna national park, Ceylon. Ecology 53, 208–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, K.A., 1987. Field metabolic rate and food requirement scaling in mammals and birds. Ecol. Monogr. 57, 111–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olivier, R., 1978. Distribution and status of the Asian elephant. Oryx 14, 379–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poole, J.H., Moss, C.J., 1981. Musth in the African elephant. Nature 292, 830–831.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, R.A., 2000. Animal home ranges and territories and home range estimators. In: Boitani, L., Fuller, T.K. (Eds.), Research Techniques in Animal Ecology. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 65–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, D.H., Elder, W.H., 1977. Movements of elephants in Luangwa valley Zambia. J. Wildl. Manage. 41, 56–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rolando, A., 1998. Factors affecting movements and home ranges in the jay (Garrulus glandarius). J. Zool. 246, 249–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuel, M.D., Pierce, D.J., Garton, E.O., 1985. Identifying areas of concentrated use within the home range. J. Anim. Ecol. 54, 711–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandeil, M., 1989. The mating tactics and spacing patterns of solitary carnivores. In: Gittleman, J.L. (Ed.), Carnivore Behaviour, Ecology and Evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, pp. 164–182.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Santiapillai, C., Jackson, P., 1990. The Asian Elephant: An Action Plan for its Conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinheim, G., Wegge, P., Fjellstad, J.i., Jnawali, S.r., Weladjil, R.b., 2005. Dry season diets and habitat use of sympatric asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinocerus unicornis) in Nepal. J. Zool. 265, 377–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stokke, S., du Toit, J.T., 2002. Sexual segregation in habitat use by elephant in Chobe national park, Botswana. Afr. J. Ecol. 40, 360–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stüwe, M., Abdul, J.B., Nor, B.M., Wemmer, C.M., 1998. Tracking the movements of translocated elephants in Malaysia using satellite telemetry. Oryx 32, 68–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sukumar, R., 1989a. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sukumar, R., 1989b. Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India. I. Movement and habitat utilization patterns. J. Trop. Ecol. 5, 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Survey Department, 1988. National Atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department, Colombo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thouless, C.R., 1996. Home ranges and social organization of female elephants in northern Keny. Afr. J. Ecol. 34, 284–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venkataraman, A.B., Saandeep, R., Baskaran, N., Roy, M., Madhivanan, A., Sukumar, R., 2005. Using satellite telemetry to mitigate elephant-human conflict: an experiment in northern West Bengal, India. Curr. Sci. 88, 1827–1831.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viljoen, P.J., 1989. Spatial distribution and movements of elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the northern Namib desert region of the Kaokoveld, South West Africa/ Namibia. J. Zool. 219, 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vincent, J.P., Bideau, E., Hewison, A.J.M., Angibault, J.M., 1995. The influence of increasing density on body weight, kid production, home range and winter grouping in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). J. Zool. 236, 371–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, G.C., Garrot, R.A., 1990. Analysis of Wildlife Radio-Tracking Data. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Conservation and Research, 35 Gunasekara Gardens, Nawala Road, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka

    Prithiviraj Fernando, Eric D. Wikramanayake, H. K. Janaka, L. K. A. Jayasinghe, Manori Gunawardena, Sarath W. Kotagama, Devaka Weerakoon & Jennifer Pastorini

  2. Conservation Science Program, World Wildlife Fund United States, Washington, DC, USA

    Eric D. Wikramanayake

  3. Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka

    Sarath W. Kotagama & Devaka Weerakoon

  4. Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland

    Jennifer Pastorini

Authors
  1. Prithiviraj Fernando
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eric D. Wikramanayake
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. H. K. Janaka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. L. K. A. Jayasinghe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Manori Gunawardena
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Sarath W. Kotagama
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Devaka Weerakoon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Jennifer Pastorini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Prithiviraj Fernando.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fernando, P., Wikramanayake, E.D., Janaka, H.K. et al. Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Mamm Biol 73, 2–13 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2007.07.007

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2007.07.007

Keywords

Search

Navigation