Abstract
Digital height models (DHM) are a basic requirement for several applications. The generation of DHM is time consuming and expensive, but some nearly worldwide covering height models are available free of charge or commercially and the number and quality are growing. For practical use it is important to have some information about the quality, the accuracy, accuracy characteristics, areas with problems, height definition as digital surface model with the height of the visible surface or as digital terrain model with heights of the bare ground, resolution (point spacing and correlation of neighboured height values), homogeneity and availability. Also morphologic details are important, depending upon the point spacing and relative height accuracy. An overview about the freely available and commercially nearly worldwide covering height models with a satisfying point spacing and accuracy is given. Changes in this area are fast, so only the current status can be described. A really worldwide covering DHM came with the commercial WorldDEM, based on TanDEM-X interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) from which now also a reduced, free version with 3 arcsec point spacing is available as TDM90. In addition to the highest accuracy in this field with 10 m point spacing, WorldDEM has also very good morphologic details with the exception of city areas. Quality files belonging to WorldDEM include information about areas with problems. Some height models have been analysed by comparison with satisfying reference height models. The characteristics are described as well as the problems of accuracy specifications with different accuracy figures and dependency upon terrain inclination and other parameters, to allow a selection corresponding to the individual requirements. This also includes horizontal shifts or even rotations and higher degree systematic differences between the reference and the analysed DHM.
Zusammenfassung
Qualität von Höhenmodellen von großen Gebieten. Digitale Höhenmodelle sind eine Grundvoraussetzung für viele Anwendungen. Die Erstellung von Höhenmodellen ist zeitaufwändig und damit teuer. Es sind jedoch nahezu weltweite Höhenmodelle frei oder kommerziell verfügbar. Ihre Anzahl und Qualität nimmt zu. Für die praktische Verwendung ist es erforderlich, Informationen über die Qualität zu haben, was sich durch die Genauigkeit, Genauigkeitscharakteristik, Gebiete mit Problemen und die Definition als Oberflächenmodell mit der Höhe der sichtbaren Objekte, oder Geländemodell mit der Höhe des Bodens und der Korrelation benachbarter Höhenwerte beschreiben lässt. Darüber hinaus ist die Homogenität und Verfügbarkeit von Bedeutung. Die morphologischen Details lassen sich durch den Punktabstand und die relative Höhengenauigkeit beschreiben. Es wird ein Überblick über die frei verfügbaren und kommerziellen, nahezu weltweiten Höhenmodelle mit ausreichendem Punktabstand und akzeptabler Genauigkeit gegeben. Die Änderungen in diesem Bereich sind schnell, so dass nur der aktuelle Stand beschrieben werden kann. Ein wirklich weltweites Höhenmodell kam mit dem kommerziellen WorldDEM, das auf dem interferometrischen Radar mit synthetischer Apertur (InSAR) der TanDEM-X-Konfiguration basiert. Zusätzlich zu der höchsten Genauigkeit sind mit Ausnahme der Stadtgebiete die morphologischen Details durch den Punktabstand von 10 m sehr gut. Zusätzliche Qualitätsdateien beschreiben WorldDEM. Die aufgeführten Höhenmodelle wurden mit Referenzhöhenmodellen verglichen, die eine ausreichende Genauigkeit haben. Um die Auswahl geeigneter Höhenmodelle zu erleichtern wird die Charakteristik der Höhenmodelle beschrieben, wie auch die Probleme der Genauigkeitsspezifikationen, verschiedene Genauigkeitsmaße und die Abhängigkeit von der Geländeneigung und anderen Parametern. Dieses enthält auch Informationen über Verschiebungen und manchmal Rotationen der Höhenmodelle, sowie höhergradige systematische Höhenfehler.
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Abbreviations
- ACE:
-
Altimeter corrected elevations
- ADR:
-
Former photogrammetric company in USA
- AW3D:
-
ALOS World 3D with 5 m point spacing
- AW3D30:
-
AW3D with 30 m point spacing
- BIMTAS:
-
Affiliated company of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality
- DEM:
-
Digital elevation model (general term)—same as DHM
- DHM:
-
Digital height model (general term)—same as DEM
- DLR:
-
German Aerospace Center
- DSM:
-
Digital surface model (height of visible surface)
- DTM:
-
Digital terrain model (height of bare ground)
- GCP:
-
Ground control point
- GDEM:
-
Global digital elevation model
- GSD:
-
Ground sampling distance (distance of neighboured pixel centres on ground)
- HEM:
-
Height error map
- IGN:
-
Institut national de l’information géographique et forestière, France
- InSAR:
-
Interferometric synthetic aperture radar
- ISPRS:
-
International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
- JAXA:
-
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
- LE90:
-
Linear error (of height) with 90% reliability
- LE95:
-
Linear error (of height) with 95% reliability
- LiDAR:
-
Light detection and ranging (same as laser scanning)
- METI:
-
Japanese Ministry of Trade and Industry
- MOMRA:
-
Saudi Arabian Ministry of Municipalities and Rural Affairs
- NGA:
-
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, USA
- NMAD:
-
Normalized median absolute deviation for height
- NTT:
-
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone
- RESTEC:
-
Remote Technology Center of Japan
- RMSZ:
-
Root mean square of height
- SRTM:
-
Shuttle radar topography mission
- SZ:
-
Standard deviation of height
- TDM90:
-
TanDEM-X height model reduced to 90 m point spacing
- USGS:
-
United States Geological Survey
- UAV:
-
Unmanned aerial vehicle
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for its funding of parts of this research through the Research Group Project no. RGP-VPP-275.
Funding
King Saud University (The Research Group Project no. RGPVPP-275, the Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University).
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Aldosari, A.A., Jacobsen, K. Quality of Height Models Covering Large Areas. PFG 87, 177–190 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-019-00072-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-019-00072-1