Abstract
Purpose of Review
To provide an overview of the current research surrounding violence in prison populations.
Recent Findings
It has been a long-held misconception that race plays a factor in the propensity to commit violence leading to the higher rates of incarceration. On review of recent data, exposure to violence and socioeconomic status play a big part in not only how a person’s path leads to incarceration, but also to the continuation of the cycle of violence. The lack of effective interventions in the prison and jail environments also contributes to the incidence of violence in this patient population. Furthermore, this lack of intervention leads to the development, or worsening in some cases, of medical and psychiatric problems in this group.
Summary
Incarcerated populations are at high risk for physical and sexual assault from other inmates as well as from staff. The consequence of this environment exacerbates pre-existing physical and mental conditions. Further research must be done into evidence-based interventions that address these overwhelming disparities.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Upon request.
Code Availability
n/a.
References
Kang-Brown J, Montagnet C, Heiss J. People in Jail and Prison in 20202021. Available from: https://www.vera.org/downloads/publications/people-in-jail-and-prison-in-2020.pdf. Accessed 5 Aug 2021.
Fazel S, Baillargeon J. The health of prisoners. The Lancet. 2011;377(9769):956–65.
Chang Z, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H, Fazel S. Substance use disorders, psychiatric disorders, and mortality after release from prison: a nationwide longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2015;2(5):422–30.
Massoglia M, Pare PP, Schnittker J, Gagnon A. The relationship between incarceration and premature adult mortality: gender specific evidence. Soc Sci Res. 2014;46:142–54.
Beck A, Berzofsky M, Caspar R, Krebs C, Young M, Thomas J, et al. Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, 2011–12. Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics 2013.
Smith E, Stroop J, Beck A, Cantor D, Hartge J, Heaton L, et al. Sexual Victimization Reported by Youth in Juvenile Facilities, 2018. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics 2019.
Carson EA, Mueller S, Zeng Z, Su E, Epps-Carey C. Mortality in State and Federal Prisons, 2001–2018 Statistical Tables. U.S. Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics 2021.
E. Ann Carson PD, Anderson E, Markman J, Kaeble D, Maruschak L, Alper M, et al. Prisoners in 2015. Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2016.
Reidy TJ, Sorensen JR. Prison Homicides: A Multidimensional Comparison of Perpetrators and Victims. J Forensic Psychol Res Pract. 2017;17(2):99–116.
Reidy TJ, Sorensen JR, Bonner HS. Prison Homicide: An Extension of Violent Criminal Careers? J Interpers Violence. 2020;35(23/24):5676–90.
Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS). online: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; 2005.
Carson EA, Mueller S, Zeng Z, Hendrixson E, Epps-Carey C. Mortality in Local Jails, 2000–2018 - Statistical Tables. US Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2021.
Favril L, Stoliker B, Vander LF. What Differentiates Prisoners Who Attempt Suicide from Those Who Experience Suicidal Ideation? A Nationally Representative Study. Suicide Life-Threat Behav. 2020;50(5):975–89.
Fazel S, Cartwright J, Norman-Nott A, Hawton K. Suicide in prisoners: a systematic review of risk factors. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(11):1721–31.
Hayes LM. National study of jail suicide: 20 years later. J Correct Health Care. 2012;18(3):233–45.
Roma P, Pompili M, Lester D, Girardi P, Ferracuti S. Incremental conditions of isolation as a predictor of suicide in prisoners. Forensic Sci Int. 2013;233(1–3):e1-2.
Dixon KJ, Ertl AM, Leavitt RA, Sheats KJ, Fowler KA, Jack SPD. Suicides Among Incarcerated Persons in 18 U.S. States: Findings From the National Violent Death Reporting System, 2003–2014. J Correct Health Care. 2020;26(3):279–91.
Sung H. Prevalence and risk factors of violence-related and accident-related injuries among state prisoners. J Correct Health Care. 2010;16(3):178–87.
Wolff N, Jing S. Contextualization of physical and sexual assault in male prisons: incidents and their aftermath. J Correct Health Care. 2009;15(1):58–77; quiz 80–2.
Steiner B, Ellison JM, Butler HD, Cain CM. The Impact of Inmate and Prison Characteristics on Prisoner Victimization. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2017;18(1):17–36.
Wooldredge J. Prison Culture, Management, and In-Prison Violence. Annu Rev Criminol. 2020;3(1):165–88.
Steiner B, Meade B. Assessing the Relationship between Exposure to Violence and Inmate Maladjustment within and Across State Correctional Facilities. US Department of Justice: National Institute of Justice; 2013.
Smith HP. EVALUATING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PRISON RAPE ELIMINATION ACT (PREA): A “LESSONS LEARNED” APPROACH. Eval Program Plann. 2020;83: 101855.
Rantala R, Stroop J, Mueller S, Motivans M, Coulton B, Thomas J, et al. Sexual victimization reported by adult correctional authorities, 2012–15.: US Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs 2018.
Warren J, Jackson S, Loper AB, Burnette M. Risk Markers For Sexual Predation and Victimization in Prison. National Institute of Justice; 2009. Contract No.: 230522.
Hilinski-Rosick CM, Freiburger TL. Sexual Violence Among Male Inmates. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2021;36(5/6):NP3285-NP303.
Ratkalkar M, Atkin-Plunk CA. Can I Ask for Help? The Relationship Among Incarcerated Males’ Sexual Orientation, Sexual Abuse History, and Perceptions of Rape in Prison. J Interpers Violence. 2020;35(19/20):4117–40.
Fedock G, Cummings C, Kubiak S, Bybee D, Campbell R, Darcy K. Incarcerated Women’s Experiences of Staff-Perpetrated Rape: Racial Disparities and Justice Gaps in Institutional Responses. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2019:088626051985053.
Beck A, Rantala R, Rexroat J. Sexual Victimization reported by adult correctional authorities, 2009–11. In: Statistics BoJ, editor.: US Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs; 2014.
Davis AJ. Sexual assaults in the Philadelphia prison system and Sheriff’s Vans. Society. 1968;6(2):8–17.
Carroll L. Humanitarian Reform and Biracial Sexual Assault in a Maximum Security Prison. Urban Life; 1977. p. 417–37.
Bonner HS, Rodriguez FA, Sorensen JR. Race, ethnicity, and prison disciplinary misconduct. J Ethn Crim Justice. 2017;15(1):36–51.
Schenk AM, Fremouw WJ. Individual characteristics related to prison violence: A critical review of the literature. Aggress Violent Beh. 2012;17(5):430–42.
Griffin ML, Hepburn JR. The Effect of Gang Affiliation on Violent Misconduct Among Inmates During the Early Years of Confinement. Crim Justice Behav. 2006;33(4):419–66.
Steiner B, Butler HD, Ellison JM. Causes and correlates of prison inmate misconduct: A systematic review of the evidence. J Crim Just. 2014;42(6):462–70.
Lindekugel D, Bell K. Correlates of Violence within Washington state prisons. Criminol Crim Justice, Law Soc. 2015;16(1):21–34.
Massoglia M, Pridemore WA. Incarceration and Health. Annu Rev Sociol. 2015;41:291–310.
Massoglia M. Incarceration as exposure: the prison, infectious disease, and other stress-related illnesses. J Health Soc Behav. 2008;49(1):56–71.
Wang EA, Pletcher M, Lin F, Vittinghoff E, Kertesz SG, Kiefe CI, et al. Incarceration, incident hypertension, and access to health care: findings from the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(7):687–93.
Houle B. The Effect of Incarceration on Adult Male BMI Trajectories, United States, 1981–2006. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2014;1(1):21–8.
Prins SJ, Draper L. Improving outcomes for people with mental illnesses under community corrections supervision: A guide to research-informed policy and practice. New York: Council of State Governments Justice Center; 2009.
Fuller E, Sheriff A, Kennard M, Lamb H, Pavle J. More Mentally Ill Persons Are in Jails and Prisons Than Hospitals: A Survey of the States. Treatment Advocacy Center. 2010.
Martin MS, Colman I, Simpson AIF, McKenzie K. Mental health screening tools in correctional institutions: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. 2013;13:275-.
Fazel S, Hayes AJ, Bartellas K, Clerici M, Trestman R. Mental health of prisoners: prevalence, adverse outcomes, and interventions. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(9):871–81.
Rocheleau AM. Ways of Coping and Involvement in Prison Violence. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2013;59.
Newman M, Fedina L, Nam B, Devylder J, Alleyne-Green B. Associations Between Interpersonal Violence, Psychological Distress, and Suicidal Ideation Among Formerly Incarcerated Men and Women. J Interpers Violence. 2020:088626052093304.
Wallace D, Wang X. Does in-prison physical and mental health impact recidivism? SSM Popul Health. 2020;11: 100569.
Lauger A, Maruschak L, Mueller S, Field M, Su E. PREA Data-Collection Activities Washington, DC: US Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2020.
Ahlin EM. Risk Factors of Sexual Assault and Victimization Among Youth in Custody. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2021;36(3/4):NP2164–87NP.
Field MB, Davis E. Victim, Perpetrator, and Incident Characteristics of Sexual Victimization of Youth in Juvenile Facilities, 2018 - Statistical Tables. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2020.
Heaton L, Cantor D, Bruce C, Ren W, Harte J. Facility-level and Individual-level correlates of Sexual Victimization in Juvenile Facilities. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics 2016.
Holman B, Ziedenberg J. The Dangers of Detention: The IMpact of Incarcerating Youth in Detention and Other Secure Facilities. Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute; 2006.
Ruch DA, Sheftall AH, Schlagbaum P, Fontanella CA, Campo JV, Bridge JA. Characteristics and Precipitating Circumstances of Suicide Among Incarcerated Youth. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;58(5):514-.
Houchins DE, Jimenez E, Langley N, Plescow K, Henrich CC. Predictors of Self-Determination and Mental Health Symptoms Among Youth in Juvenile Justice Facilities. Behav Disord. 2021;46(3):138–48.
Baćak V, Thurman K, Eyer K, Qureshi R, Bird JDP, Rivera LM, et al. Incarceration as a Health Determinant for Sexual Orientation and Gender Minority Persons. Am J Public Health. 2018;108(8):994–9.
Ledesma E, Ford CL. Health Implications of Housing Assignments for Incarcerated Transgender Women. Am J Public Health. 2020;110(5):650–4.
Meyer IH, Flores AR, Stemple L, Romero AP, Wilson BD, Herman JL. Incarceration Rates and Traits of Sexual Minorities in the United States: National Inmate Survey, 2011–2012. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(2):267–73.
Lydon J, Carrington K, Low H, MIller R, Yazdy M. Coming out of Concrete Closets: A Report on Black and Pink’s National LGBTQ Prisoner Survey. Dorchester, MA: Black Pink; 2015.
Poteat TC, Malik M, Beyrer C. Epidemiology of HIV, Sexually Transmitted Infections, Viral Hepatitis, and Tuberculosis Among Incarcerated Transgender People: A Case of Limited Data. Epidemiol Rev. 2018;40(1):27–39.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
All of the authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This article is part of the Topical collection on Intentional Violence
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Worthey, A., Thomas, A., Jones, C. et al. Violence in Incarcerated Populations: a Review of the Literature. Curr Trauma Rep 8, 172–178 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40719-022-00234-4
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40719-022-00234-4