Abstract
Urbanization and the shaping of the built environment have provided a number of socioeconomic benefits, but they have also brought unwanted side effects on health. We aimed to review the current epidemiological evidence of the associations between the built environment, closely related exposures, and child health. We focused on growth and obesity, neuropsychological development, and respiratory and immune health. We used existing review articles and supplemented these with relevant work published and not included in existing reviews. The present review shows that there is good evidence for an association between air pollution and fetal growth restriction and respiratory health, whereas for other exposure and outcome combinations, further evidence is needed. Future studies should make efforts to integrate the different built environment features and to include the evaluation of environments other than home, as well as accessibility, qualitative and perception assessment of the built environment, and, if possible, with improved and standardized tools to facilitate comparability between studies. Efforts are also needed to conduct longitudinal and intervention studies and to understand potential mechanisms behind the associations observed. Finally, studies in low- and middle-income countries are needed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance
World Health Organization. Children’s environmental health. Environmental risks [Internet]. Available from: http://www.who.int/ceh/risks/en/.
Tamburlini G, von Ehrenstein O, Bertollini R. Children’s health and environment. A review of evidence [Internet]. Copenhagen; 2002. Available from: http://www.euro.who.int/en/publications/abstracts/childrens-health-and-environment.-a-review-of-evidence.
Jackson RJ, Kochtitzky C. Creating a healthy environment: the impact of the built environment on public health [Internet]. Washington; available from: http://medanthro.net/academic/docs/kochtitzky.pdf.
National Center for Environmental Health, Division of Emergency and Environmental Health Services. Impact of the built environment on health. Healthy community design. Fact sheet series. [Internet]. 2011. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publications/factsheets/impactofthebuiltenvironmentonhealth.pdf.
Rao M, Prasad S, Adshead F, Tissera H. The built environment and health. Lancet. 2007;370:1111–3.
Handy SL, Boarnet MG, Ewing R, Killingsworth RE. How the built environment affects physical activity. Am J Prev Med. 2002;23:64–73.
Lavin T, Higgins C, Metcalfe O, Jordan A. Health impacts of the built environment: a review [Internet]. Dublin; 2006. Available from: http://hiaconnect.edu.au/old/files/Health_Impacts_of_the_Built_Environment.pdf.
Keddem S, Barg FK, Glanz K, Jackson T, Green S, George M. Mapping the urban asthma experience: using qualitative GIS to understand contextual factors affecting asthma control. Soc Sci Med. 2015;140:9–17.
Nieuwenhuijsen MJ. Urban planning, environmental exposures and health [Internet]. United Cities Local Gov. 2014. Available from: http://www.uclg.org/en/media/news/urban-planning-environmental-exposures-and-health.
WHO. Controlling the global obesity epidemic [Internet]. Available from: http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/obesity/en/.
Bousquet J, Anto J, Auffray C, Akdis M, Cambon-Thomsen A, Keil T, et al. MeDALL (Mechanisms of the Development of ALLergy): an integrated approach from phenotypes to systems medicine. Allergy. 2011;66:596–604.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). New data: medication and behavior treatment [Internet]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/data.html.
Gascon M, Morales E, Sunyer J, Vrijheid M. Effects of persistent organic pollutants on the developing respiratory and immune systems: a systematic review. Environ Int. 2013;52C:51–65.
Grasser G, Van Dyck D, Titze S, Stronegger W. Objectively measured walkability and active transport and weight-related outcomes in adults: a systematic review. Int J Public Health. 2013;58:615–25.
Janssen I, King N. Walkable school neighborhoods are not playable neighborhoods. Health Place. 2015;35:66–9.
Mecredy G, Pickett W, Janssen I. Street connectivity is negatively associated with physical activity in Canadian youth. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2011;8:3333–50.
D’Haese S, Van Dyck D, De Bourdeaudhuij I, Deforche B, Cardon G. The association between objective walkability, neighborhood socio-economic status, and physical activity in Belgian children. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2014;11:104.
Duncan DT, Sharifi M, Melly SJ, Marshall R, Sequist TD, Rifas-Shiman SL, et al. Characteristics of walkable built environments and BMI z-scores in children: evidence from a large electronic health record database. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122:1359–65.
Hsieh S, Klassen AC, Curriero FC, Caulfield LE, Cheskin LJ, Davis JN, et al. Built environment associations with adiposity parameters among overweight and obese Hispanic youth. Prev Med Rep. 2015;2:406–12.
Hsieh S, Klassen AC, Curriero FC, Caulfield LE, Cheskin LJ, Davis JN, et al. Fast-food restaurants, park access, and insulin resistance among Hispanic youth. Am J Prev Med. 2014;46:378–87.
Penney TL, Almiron-Roig E, Shearer C, McIsaac J-L, Kirk SFL. Modifying the food environment for childhood obesity prevention: challenges and opportunities. Proc Nutr Soc. 2014;73:226–36.
Cetateanu A, Jones A. Understanding the relationship between food environments, deprivation and childhood overweight and obesity: evidence from a cross sectional England-wide study. Health Place. 2014;27:68–76.
Vogel C, Parsons C, Godfrey K, Robinson S, Harvey NC, Inskip H, et al. Greater access to fast-food outlets is associated with poorer bone health in young children. Osteoporos Int. 2016;27:1011–9.
Dadvand P, Sunyer J, Basagaña X, Ballester F, Lertxundi A, Fernández-Somoano A, et al. Surrounding greenness and pregnancy outcomes in four Spanish birth cohorts. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;120:1481–7.
Agay-Shay K, Peled A, Crespo AV, Peretz C, Amitai Y, Linn S, et al. Green spaces and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Occup Environ Med. 2014;71:562–9.
Markevych I, Fuertes E, Tiesler CMT, Birk M, Bauer C-P, Koletzko S, et al. Surrounding greenness and birth weight: results from the GINIplus and LISAplus birth cohorts in Munich. Health Place. 2014;26:39–46.
Hystad P, Davies HW, Frank L, Van Loon J, Gehring U, Tamburic L, et al. Residential greenness and birth outcomes: evaluating the influence of spatially correlated built-environment factors. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122:1095–102.
Grazuleviciene R, Danileviciute A, Dedele A, Vencloviene J, Andrusaityte S, Uždanaviciute I, et al. Surrounding greenness, proximity to city parks and pregnancy outcomes in Kaunas cohort study. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2015;218:358–65.
Lachowycz K, Jones AP. Greenspace and obesity: a systematic review of the evidence. Obes Rev. 2011;12:e183–9.
Hartig T, Mitchell R, de Vries S, Frumkin H. Nature and health. Annu Rev Public Health. 2014;35:207–28.
Gascon M, Triguero-Mas M, Martínez D, Dadvand P, Forns J, Plasència A, et al. Mental health benefits of long-term exposure to residential green and blue spaces: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12:4354–79. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.
Dadvand P, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Esnaola M, Forns J, Basagaña X, Alvarez-Pedrerol M, et al. Green spaces and cognitive development in primary schoolchildren. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112:7937–42.
Rook GA. Regulation of the immune system by biodiversity from the natural environment: an ecosystem service essential to health. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110:18360–7.
Lovasi GS, Quinn JW, Neckerman KM, Perzanowski MS, Rundle A. Children living in areas with more street trees have lower prevalence of asthma. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2008;62:647–9.
Lovasi GS, O’Neil-Dunne JPM, Lu JWT, Sheehan D, Perzanowski MS, Macfaden SW, et al. Urban tree canopy and asthma, wheeze, rhinitis, and allergic sensitization to tree pollen in a New York City birth cohort. Environ Health Perspect. 2013;121:494–500.
Fuertes E, Markevych I, von Berg A, Bauer C-P, Berdel D, Koletzko S, et al. Greenness and allergies: evidence of differential associations in two areas in Germany. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014;68:787–90.
Ruokolainen L, von Hertzen L, Fyhrquist N, Laatikainen T, Lehtomäki J, Auvinen P, et al. Green areas around homes reduce atopic sensitization in children. Allergy. 2015;70:195–202.
Dadvand P, Villanueva CM, Font-Ribera L, Martinez D, Basagaña X, Belmonte J, et al. Risks and benefits of green spaces for children: a cross-sectional study of associations with sedentary behavior, obesity, asthma, and allergy. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122:1329–35.
Sbihi H, Tamburic L, Koehoorn M, Brauer M. Greenness and incident childhood asthma: a 10-year follow-up in a population-based birth cohort. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;192:1131–3.
Dick S, Friend A, Dynes K, AlKandari F, Doust E, Cowie H, et al. A systematic review of associations between environmental exposures and development of asthma in children aged up to 9 years. BMJ Open. 2014;4:e006554.
Goldizen FC, Sly PD, Knibbs LD. Respiratory effects of air pollution on children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016;51:94–108.
WHO. WHO air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide—global update 2005|summary of risk assessment [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006. Available from: http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/outdoorair_aqg/en/.
Gasana J, Dillikar D, Mendy A, Forno E, Ramos Vieira E. Motor vehicle air pollution and asthma in children: a meta-analysis. Environ Res. 2012;117:36–45. This is a meta-analysis including 19 studies on the respiratory health effects of air pollution in children. The study consistent evidence of an association and highlights the role of air pollution on development of respiratory diseases.
Smarr MM, Vadillo-Ortega F, Castillo-Castrejon M, O’Neill MS. The use of ultrasound measurements in environmental epidemiological studies of air pollution and fetal growth. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2013;25:240–6.
Rich DQ, Liu K, Zhang J, Thurston SW, Stevens TP, Pan Y, et al. Differences in birth weight associated with the 2008 Beijing Olympics air pollution reduction: results from a natural experiment. Environ Health Perspect. 2015;123:880–7.
Suades-González E, Gascon M, Guxens M, Sunyer J. Air pollution and neuropsychological development: a review of the latest evidence. Endocrinology. 2015;156:3473–82.
McConnell R, Gilliland FD, Goran M, Allayee H, Hricko A, Mittelman S. Does near-roadway air pollution contribute to childhood obesity? Pediatr Obes. 2016;11:1–3.
WHO. Night noise guideline for Europe [Internet]. Copenhagen; 2009. Available from: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/43316/E92845.pdf?ua=1.
van Kamp I, Persson Waye K, Gidlöf-Gunnarsson A. The effects of noise disturbed sleep in children on cognitive development and long term health. J Child Adolesc Behav OMICS Group; 2015;03.
van Kamp I, Davies H. Noise and health in vulnerable groups: a review. Noise Health. 2013;15:153–9. Medknow Publications and Media Pvt. Ltd.
Hohmann C, Grabenhenrich L, de Kluizenaar Y, Tischer C, Heinrich J, Chen C-M, et al. Health effects of chronic noise exposure in pregnancy and childhood: a systematic review initiated by ENRIECO. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2013;216:217–29.
Fatima Y, Doi SAR, Mamun AA. Longitudinal impact of sleep on overweight and obesity in children and adolescents: a systematic review and bias-adjusted meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2015;16:137–49.
Ristovska G, Laszlo HE, Hansell AL. Reproductive outcomes associated with noise exposure—a systematic review of the literature. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11:7931–52.
Xu Z, Etzel RA, Su H, Huang C, Guo Y, Tong S. Impact of ambient temperature on children’s health: a systematic review. Environ Res. 2012;117:120–31.
Li S, Baker PJ, Jalaludin BB, Guo Y, Marks GB, Denison LS, et al. Are children’s asthmatic symptoms related to ambient temperature? A panel study in Australia. Environ Res. 2014;133:239–45.
Dadvand P, Basagaña X, Sartini C, Figueras F, Vrijheid M, de Nazelle A, et al. Climate extremes and the length of gestation. Environ Health Perspect. 2011;119:1449–53.
Auger N, Naimi AI, Smargiassi A, Lo E, Kosatsky T. Extreme heat and risk of early delivery among preterm and term pregnancies. Epidemiology. 2014;25:344–50.
Martine G, Marshall A. State of world population 2007: unleashing the potential of urban growth. UNFPA; 2007.
Brown LR. Chapter 9. Redesigning cities for people: car-centered urban sprawl. Eco-Economy build. An econ. Earth [Internet]. Earth Policy Institute; 2001. Available from: http://www.earth-policy.org/books/eco/eech9_ss3.
Frank L, Kavage S, Devlin A. Health and the built environment: a review [Internet]. 2012. Available from: http://www.wma.net/en/20activities/30publichealth/30healthenvironment/Built_Env-Final_Report-August2012.pdf.
U.S. Department of Energy. Effects of the built environment on transportation: energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and other factors [Internet]. 2013. Available from: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/55634.pdf.
Expert group on the urban environment. Towards a local sustainability profile: European common indicators [Internet]. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities; 2001. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/urban/pdf/local_sustainability_en.pdf.
Annerstedt van den Bosch M, Mudu P, Uscila V, Barrdahl M, Kulinkina A, Staatsen B, et al. Development of an urban green space indicator and the public health rationale. Scand J Public Health. 2016;44:159–67.
Annerstedt M, Ostergren P-O, Björk J, Grahn P, Skärbäck E, Währborg P. Green qualities in the neighbourhood and mental health—results from a longitudinal cohort study in Southern Sweden. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:337.
Millward H, Spinney J, Scott D. Active-transport walking behavior: destinations, durations, distances. J Transp Geogr. 2013;28:101–10.
Mueller N, Rojas-Rueda D, Cole-Hunter T, de Nazelle A, Dons E, Gerike R, et al. Health impact assessment of active transportation: a systematic review. Prev Med. 2015;76:103–14.
Villanueva K, Badland H, Kvalsvig A, O’Connor M, Christian H, Woolcock G, et al. Can the neighborhood built environment make a difference in children’s development? Building the research agenda to create evidence for place-based children’s policy. Acad Pediatr Elsevier. 2015;16:10–9. The authors discuss the importance of exploring the effect of the neighborhood built environment on child development as a crucial first step toward informing urban design principles to help reduce developmental vulnerability in children and to set optimal child development trajectories early.
Vrijheid M, Slama R, Robinson O, Chatzi L, Coen M, van den Hazel P, et al. The Human Early-Life Exposome (HELIX): project rationale and design. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122:535–44.
Frank LD, Saelens BE, Powell KE, Chapman JE. Stepping towards causation: do built environments or neighborhood and travel preferences explain physical activity, driving, and obesity? Soc Sci Med. 2007;65:1898–914.
Hanibuchi T, Nakaya T, Yonejima M, Honjo K. Perceived and objective measures of neighborhood walkability and physical activity among adults in Japan: a multilevel analysis of a nationally representative sample. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12:13350–64.
Giles-Corti B, Wood G, Pikora T, Learnihan V, Bulsara M, Van Niel K, et al. School site and the potential to walk to school: the impact of street connectivity and traffic exposure in school neighborhoods. Health Place. 2011;17:545–50.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Division of Community Health (DCH). The built environment assessment tool manual [Internet]. [cited 2015 Nov 20]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dch/built-environment-assessment/.
Spoon C. Free online course for assessing the built environment for physical activity. Active living research [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2015 Nov 20]. Available from: http://activelivingresearch.org/blog/2012/09/free-online-course-assessing-built-environment-physical-activity.
Rahmanian E, Gasevic D, Vukmirovich I, Lear SA. The association between the built environment and dietary intake—a systematic review. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2014;23:183–96.
Sallis JF, Saelens BE, Frank LD, Conway TL, Slymen DJ, Cain KL, et al. Neighborhood built environment and income: examining multiple health outcomes. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68:1285–93. This is an international study that highlights the importance of potential of the urban design to contribute to improve physical activity.
Wood L, Shannon T, Bulsara M, Pikora T, McCormack G, Giles-Corti B. The anatomy of the safe and social suburb: an exploratory study of the built environment, social capital and residents’ perceptions of safety. Health Place. 2008;14:15–31.
Sallis JF, Cerin E, Conway TL, Adams MA, Frank LD, Pratt M, et al. Physical activity in relation to urban environments in 14 cities worldwide: a cross-sectional study. Lancet. Elsevier; 2016.
Reyer M, Fina S, Siedentop S, Schlicht W. Walkability is only part of the story: walking for transportation in Stuttgart, Germany. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11:5849–65.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World urbanization prospects—the 2014 revision—highlights [Internet]. New York: United Nations; 2014. Available from: http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf.
Gluckman PD, Hanson MA. Living with the past: evolution, development, and patterns of disease. Science. 2004;305:1733–6.
Acknowledgments
This study did not obtain any funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
Mireia Gascon, Martine Vrijheid, and Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
This article is part of the Topical Collection on Early Life Environmental Health
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gascon, M., Vrijheid, M. & Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J. The Built Environment and Child Health: An Overview of Current Evidence. Curr Envir Health Rpt 3, 250–257 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-016-0094-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-016-0094-z