Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effects and Dose–Response Relationships of Motor Imagery Practice on Strength Development in Healthy Adult Populations: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

  • Systematic Review
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background

Motor imagery (MI), a mental simulation of a movement without overt muscle contraction, has been largely used to improve general motor tasks. However, the effects of MI practice on maximal voluntary strength (MVS) remain equivocal.

Objectives

The aims of this meta-analysis were to (1) estimate whether MI practice intervention can meaningfully improve MVS in healthy adults; (2) compare the effects of MI practice on MVS with its combination with physical practice (MI-C), and with physical practice (PP) training alone; and (3) investigate the dose–response relationships of MI practice.

Data Sources and Study Eligibility

Seven electronic databases were searched up to April 2017. Initially 717 studies were identified; however, after evaluation of the study characteristics, data from 13 articles involving 370 participants were extracted. The meta-analysis was completed on MVS as the primary parameter. In addition, parameters associated with training volume, training intensity, and time spent training were used to investigate dose–response relationships.

Results

MI practice moderately improved MVS. When compared to conventional PP, effects were of small benefit in favour of PP. MI-C when compared to PP showed unclear effects. MI practice produced moderate effects in both upper and lower extremities on MVS. The cortical representation area of the involved muscles did not modify the effects. Meta-regression analysis revealed that (a) a training period of 4 weeks, (b) a frequency of three times per week, (c) two to three sets per single session, (d) 25 repetitions per single set, and (e) single session duration of 15 min were associated with enhanced improvements in muscle strength following MI practice. Similar dose–response relationships were observed following MI and PP.

Conclusions

The present meta-analysis demonstrates that compared to a no-exercise control group of healthy adults, MI practice increases MVS, but less than PP. These findings suggest that MI practice could be considered as a substitute or additional training tool to preserve muscle function when athletes are not exposed to maximal training intensities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Tod D, Edwards C, McGuigan M, Lovell G. A systematic review of the effect of cognitive strategies on strength performance. Sports Med. 2015;45(11):1589–602.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Tod D, Iredale F, Gill N. “Psyching-up” and muscular force production. Sports Med. 2003;33(1):47–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Shelton TO, Mahoney MJ. The content and effect of “psyching-up” strategies in weight lifters. Cogn Ther Res. 1978;2(3):275–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Whelan JP, Epkins CC, Meyers AW. Arousal interventions for athletic performance: influence of mental preparation and competitive experience. Anxiety Res. 1990;2(4):293–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Gould D, Weinberg R, Jackson A. Mental preparation strategies, cognitions, and strength performance. J Sport Psychol. 1980;2(4):329–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Cumming J, Williams SE. The role of imagery in performance. In: Murphy SM, editor. The Oxford Handbook of sport performance and psychology. New York: Oxford University Press; 2012. pp. 213–32.

  7. Braun S, Kleynen M, van Heel T, Kruithof N, Wade D, Beurskens A. The effects of mental practice in neurological rehabilitation; a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7(August):390.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Caligiore D, Mustile M, Spalletta G, Baldassarre G. Action observation and motor imagery for rehabilitation in Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and an integrative hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;72:210–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Tamir R, Dickstein R, Huberman M. Integration of motor imagery and physical practice in group treatment applied to subjects with Parkinson’s disease. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;21(1):68–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Braun S, Beurskens A, Kleynen M, Schols J, Wade D. Rehabilitation with mental practice has similar effects on mobility as rehabilitation with relaxation in people with Parkinson’s disease: a multicentre randomised trial. J Physiother. 2011;57(1):27–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Newsome J, Knight P, Balnave R. Use of mental imagery to limit strength loss after immobilization. J Sport Rehabil. 2003;12(3):249–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Lee H, Kim H, Ahn M, You Y. Effects of proprioception training with exercise imagery on balance ability of stroke patients. J Phys Ther Sci. 2015;27:1–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Dunsky A, Dickstein R, Marcovitz E, Levy S, Deutsch J. Home-based motor imagery training for gait rehabilitation of people with chronic poststroke hemiparesis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89(8):1580–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Lebon F, Guillot A, Collet C. Increased muscle activation following motor imagery during the rehabilitation of the anterior cruciate ligament. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2012;37(1):45–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Cupal DD, Brewer BW. Effects of relaxation and guided imagery on knee strength, reinjury anxiety, and pain following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Rehabil Psychol. 2001;46(1):28–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Marusic U, Grosprêtre S, Paravlic A, Kovač S, Pišot R, Taube W. Motor Imagery during Action Observation of Locomotor Tasks Improves Rehabilitation Outcome in Older Adults after Total Hip Arthroplasty. Neural Plast. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5651391.

  17. Richardson A. Mental imagery. Berlin: Springer; 1969.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  18. Ruffino C, Papaxanthis C, Lebon F. Neural plasticity during motor learning with motor imagery practice: review and perspectives. Neuroscience. 2017;341:61–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Martin KA, Moritz SE, Hall CR. Imagery use in sport: a literature review and applied model. Sport Psychol. 1999;13:245–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Murphy SM. Imagery interventions in sport. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993;26:486–94.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Orlick T, Partington J. Mental links to excellence. Sport Psychol. 1988;2:105–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Lotze M. Kinesthetic imagery of musical performance. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7:1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Jeannerod M. The representing brain: neural correlates of motor intention and imagery. Behav Brain Sci. 1994;17(2):187–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Porro CA, Francescato MP, Cettolo V, Diamond ME, Baraldi P, Zuiani C, et al. Primary motor and sensory cortex activation during motor performance and motor imagery: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Neurosci. 1996;16(23):7688–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Finke RA. The functional equivalence of mental images and errors of movement. Cogn Psychol. 1979;11(2):235–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Grezes J, Decety J. Functional anatomy of execution, mental simulation, observation, and verb generation of actions: a meta-analysis. Hum Brain Mapp. 2000;2001(12):1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Decety J. Comparative analysis of actual and mental movement times in two graphic tasks. Brain Cogn. 1989;11(1):87–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Fitts PM. The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. J Exp Psychol. 1954;47(6):381–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Decety J, Lindgren M. Sensation of effort and duration of mentally executed actions. Scand J Psychol. 1991;32(2):97–104.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Feltz D, Landers D. The effects of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: a meta-analysis. J Sport Psychol. 1983;5(1):25–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Scholefield SC, Cooke CP, Van Vliet PM, Heneghan NR. The effectiveness of mental imagery for improving strength in an asymptomatic population. Phys Ther Rev. 2015;20(2):86–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Slimani M, Tod D, Chaabene H, Miarka B, Chamari K. Effects of mental imagery on muscular strength in healthy and patient participants: a systematic review. J Sport Sci Med. 2016;15(3):434–50.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Manochio JP, Lattari E, Mello Portugal EM, Monteiro-Junior RS, Paes F, Budde H, et al. From mind to body: is mental practice effective on strength gains? A meta-analysis. CNS Neurol Disord Targets. 2015;14(9):1145–51.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Borenstein M, Hedges LV, Higgins JPT, Rothstein HR. Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, UK: Wiley; 2009. pp. 249–95.

  35. Schuster C, Hilfiker R, Amft O, Scheidhauer A, Andrews B, Butler J, et al. Best practice for motor imagery: a systematic literature review on motor imagery training elements in five different disciplines. BMC Med. 2011;9(1):75.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Driskell JE, Copper C, Moran A. Does mental practice enhance performance? J Appl Psychol. 1994;79(4):481–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Yu Q-H, Fu ASN, Kho A, Li J, Sun X-H, Chan CCH. Imagery perspective among young athletes: differentiation between external and internal visual imagery. J Sport Heal Sci. 2016;5(2):211–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Olsson C-J, Jonsson B, Larsson A, Nyberg L. Motor representations and practice affect brain systems underlying imagery: an FMRI study of internal imagery in novices and active high jumpers. Open Neuroimaging J. 2008;2:5–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Yao WX, Ranganathan VK, Allexandre D, Siemionow V, Yue GH. Kinesthetic imagery training of forceful muscle contractions increases brain signal and muscle strength. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7(September):561.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Decety Grèzes. Neural mechanisms subserving the perception of human actions. Trends Cogn Sci. 1999;3(5):172–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Wernbom M, Augustsson J, Thomeé R. The influence of frequency, intensity, volume and mode of strength training on whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans. Sports Med. 2007;37(3):225–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Peterson MD, Rhea MR, Alvar BA. Maximizing strength development in athletes: a meta-analysis to determine the dose–response relationship. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(2):377.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. American College of Sports Medicine. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;41(3):687–708.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Grp P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement (reprinted from annals of internal medicine). Phys Ther. 2009;89(9):873–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JPA, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. J Clin Epidemiol. 2009;62(10):e1–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Cochrane. Consumers and Communication Group resources for authors (Internet). 2016 (cited 15 Feb 2017). p. 1. http://cccrg.cochrane.org/author-resources.

  47. Maher CG, Sherrington C, Herbert RD, Moseley AM, Elkins M. Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials. Phys Ther. 2003;83(8):713–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Higgins JPT, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG. Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ Br Med J. 2003;327(7414):557–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Hopkins WG, Marshall SW, Batterham AM, Hanin J. Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise science. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(1):3–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Lebon F, Collet C, Guillot A. Benefits of motor imagery training on muscle strength. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(6):1680–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Yue G, Cole KJ. Strength increases from the motor program: comparison of training with maximal voluntary and imagined muscle contractions. J Neurophysiol. 1992;67(5):1114–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Smith D, Collins D, Holmes P. Impact and mechanism of mental practice effects on strength. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2003;1(3):293–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Reiser M. Kraftgewinne durch Vorstellung maximaler Muskelkontraktionen. Zeitschrift für Sport. 2005;12(1):11–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Sidaway B, Trzaska AR. Can mental practice increase ankle dorsiflexor torque? Phys Ther. 2005;85(10):1053–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Darvishi M, Ahmadi S, Hierani A, Jabari N. Effects of motor imagery and maximal isometric action on grip strength of elderly men. World Appl Sci J. 2013;24(4):556–60.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Jiang C, Ranganathan VK, Zhang J, Siemionow V, Yue GH. Motor effort training with low exercise intensity improves muscle strength and descending command in aging. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;24(August 2015):1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Shackell EM, Standing LG. Mind over matter: mental training increases physical strength. N Am J Psychol. 2007;9(1):189–200.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Wright CJ, Smith D. The effect of PETTLEP imagery on strength performance. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2009;7(1):18–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. de Ruiter CJ, Hutter V, Icke C, Groen B, Gemmink A, Smilde H, et al. The effects of imagery training on fast isometric knee extensor torque development. J Sports Sci. 2012;30(2):166–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Holmes PS, Collins DJ. The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery: a functional equivalence model for sport psychologists. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2001;13(1):60–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Bahari SM, Damirchi A, Rahmaninia F, Salehian MH. The effects of mental practice on strength gain and electromyographic changes in elbow flexor muscles. Ann Biol Res. 2011;2(6):198–207.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Niazi SM, Bai N, Shahamat MD, Branch J, Branch A. Investigation of effects of imagery training on changes in the electrical activity of motor units of muscles and their strength in the lower extremities. Eur J Exp Biol. 2014;4(1):595–9.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Cornwall M, Bruscato M, Barry S. Effect of mental practice on isometric muscular strength. J Orthop Sport Phys Ther. 1991;13(5):231–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Feigenbaum MS, Pollock ML. Prescription of resistance training for health and disease. Med Sci Sport Exerc. 1998;31(March):38–45.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Gandevia SC. Spinal and supraspinal factors in human muscle fatigue. Physiol Rev. 2001;81(81):1725–89.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Abazović E, Kovačević E, Kovač S, Bradić J. The effect of training of the non-dominant knee muscles on ipsi- and contralateral strength gains. Isokinet Exerc Sci. 2015;23(3):177–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Munn J, Herbert RD, Gandevia SC. Contralateral effects of unilateral resistance training: a meta-analysis. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96(5):1861–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Adamson M, MacQuaide N, Helgerud J, Hoff J, Kemi OJ. Unilateral arm strength training improves contralateral peak force and rate of force development. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;103(5):553–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Ranganathan VK, Siemionow V, Liu JZ, Sahgal V, Yue GH. From mental power to muscle power—gaining strength by using the mind. Neuropsychologia. 2004;42(7):944–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Richardson A. Mental practice: a review and discussion part II. Res Q Am Assoc Health Phys Educ Recreat. 2015;1967(38):263–73.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Zijdewind I, Toering ST, Bessem B, Van der Laan O, Diercks RL. Effects of imagery motor training on torque production of ankle plantar flexor muscles. Muscle Nerve. 2003;28(2):168–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Herbert RD, Dean C, Gandevia SC. Effects of real and imagined training on voluntary muscle activation during maximal isometric contractions. Acta Physiol Scand. 1998;163(4):361–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Jones DA, Rutherford OM. Human muscle strength training: the effects of three different regimens and the nature of the resultant changes. J Physiol. 1987;391:1–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Akima H, Takahashi H, Kuno SY, Masuda K, Masuda T, Shimojo H, et al. Early phase adaptations of muscle use and strength to isokinetic training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(4):588–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Hakkinen K, Newton RU, Gordon SE, McCormick M, Volek JS, Nindl BC, et al. Changes in muscle morphology, electromyographic activity, and force production characteristics during progressive strength training in young and older men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 1998;53(6):B415–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Higbie EJ, Cureton KJ, Iii GLW, Prior BM, Warren GL III. Effects of concentric and eccentric training on muscle strength, cross-sectional area, and neural activation. J Appl Physiol. 1996;81(3):2173–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Formaggio E, Storti SF, Cerini R, Fiaschi A, Manganotti P. Brain oscillatory activity during motor imagery in EEG-fMRI coregistration. Magn Reson Imaging. 2010;28(10):1403–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Olsson C, Jonsson B, Nyberg L. Learning by doing versus learning by thinking: an fMRI study of motor and mental training. Front Hum Neurosci. 2008;2(5):1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Lacourse MG, Orr ELR, Cramer SC, Cohen MJ. Brain activation during execution and motor imagery of novel and skilled sequential hand movements. Neuroimage. 2005;27(3):505–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Lotze M, Montoya P, Erb M, Hülsmann E, Flor H, Klose U, et al. Activation of cortical and cerebellar motor areas during executed and imagined hand movements: an fMRI study. J Cogn Neurosci. 1999;11(5):491–501.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Fontani G, Migliorini S, Benocci R, Facchini A, Casini M, Corradeschi F. Effect of mental imagery on the development of skilled motor actions. Percept Mot Skills. 2007;105:803–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Grosprêtre S, Lebon F, Papaxanthis C, Martin A. New evidence of corticospinal network modulation induced by motor imagery. J Neurophysiol. 2016;115:1279–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Munzert J, Lorey B, Zentgraf K. Cognitive motor processes: the role of motor imagery in the study of motor representations. Brain Res Rev. 2009;60(2):306–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Hétu S, Grégoire M, Saimpont A, Coll MP, Eugène F, Michon PE, et al. The neural network of motor imagery: an ALE meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013;37(5):930–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Dechent P, Merboldt K-D, Frahm J. Is the human primary motor cortex involved in motor imagery? Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2004;19(2):138–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Debarnot U, Clerget E, Olivier E. Role of the primary motor cortex in the early boost in performance following mental imagery training. PLoS One. 2011;6(10):e26717.

  87. Li S, Latash ML, Zatsiorsky VM. Effects of motor imagery on finger force responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation. Cogn Brain Res. 2004;20(2):273–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Pascual-Leone A, Amedi A, Fregni F, Merabet LB. The plastic human brain cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2005;28(1):377–401.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Baeck JS, Kim YT, Seo JH, Ryeom HK, Lee J, Choi SM, et al. Brain activation patterns of motor imagery reflect plastic changes associated with intensive shooting training. Behav Brain Res. 2012;234(1):26–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Sanes JN, Donoghue JP. Plasticity and primary motor cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2000;23:393–415.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Bunno Y, Onigata C, Suzuki T. Excitability of spinal motor neurons during motor imagery of thenar muscle activity under maximal voluntary contractions of 50% and 100%. J Phys Ther Sci. 2015;27:2775–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Bunno Y, Yurugi Y, Onigata C, Suzuki T, Iwatsuki H. Influence of motor imagery of isometric opponens pollicis activity on the excitability of spinal motor neurons: a comparison using different muscle contraction strengths. J Phys Ther Sci. 2014;26(7):1069–73.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Bunno Y, Suzuki T, Iwatsuki H. Motor imagery muscle contraction strength influences spinal motor neuron excitability and cardiac sympathetic nerve activity. J Phys Ther Sci. 2015;27(12):3793–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. Park J. Influence of mental practice on upper limb muscle activity and activities of daily living in chronic stroke patients. J Phys Ther Sci. 2016;28:1061–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Milton J, Small SL, Solodkin A. Imaging motor imagery: methodological issues related to expertise. Methods. 2008;45(4):336–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Di Rienzo F, Debarnot U, Daligault S, Saruco E, Delpuech C, Doyon J, et al. Online and offline performance gains following motor imagery practice: a comprehensive review of behavioral and neuroimaging studies. Front Aging Neurosci. 2016;10(June):1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Decety J. Neural representations for action. Rev Neurosci. 1996;7(4):285–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Lotze M, Zentgraf K. Contribution of the primary motor cortex to motor imagery. In: Guillot A, Collet C, editors. Neurophysiological foundations of mental and motor imagery. New York: Oxford University Press; 2010. pp. 31–45.

  99. Jeannerod M. Neural simulation of action: a unifying mechanism for motor cognition. Neuroimage. 2001;14(1):S103–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Hanakawa T, Dimyan MA, Hallett M. Motor planning, imagery, and execution in the distributed motor network: a time-course study with functional MRI. Cereb Cortex. 2008;18(12):2775–88.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  101. Ranganathan VK, Kuykendall T, Siemionow V, Yue GH. Level of mental effort determines training induced strength increases. Abstr Soc Neurosci. 2002;32:768.

  102. Siemionow V, Yue GH, Ranganathan VK, Liu JZ, Sahgal V. Relationship between motor activity-related cortical potential and voluntary muscle activation. Exp Brain Res. 2000;133(3):303–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Kasess CH, Windischberger C, Cunnington R, Lanzenberger R, Pezawas L, Moser E. The suppressive influence of SMA on M1 in motor imagery revealed by fMRI and dynamic causal modeling. Neuroimage. 2008;40(2):828–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Guillot A, Di Rienzo F, MacIntyre T, Moran A, Collet C. Imagining is not doing but involves specific motor commands: a review of experimental data related to motor inhibition. Front Hum Neurosci. 2012;6(September):1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Solodkin A, Hlustik P, Chen EE, Small SL. Fine modulation in network activation during motor execution and motor imagery. Cereb Cortex. 2004;14(11):1246–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Jeannerod M. Mental imagery in the motor context. Neuropsychologia. 1995;33(11):1419–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Gandevia SC. Mind, muscles and motoneurones. J Sci Med Sport. 1999;2(3):167–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Moran A. Conceptual and methodological issues in the measurement of mental imagery skills in athletes. J Sport Behav. 1993;16:156–70.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Guillot A, Collet C, Nguyen VA, Malouin F, Richards C, Doyon J. Functional neuroanatomical networks associated with expertise in motor imagery. Neuroimage. 2008;41(4):1471–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. García Carrasco D, Aboitiz Cantalapiedra J. Effectiveness of motor imagery or mental practice in functional recovery after stroke: a systematic review. Neurology (English Ed.). 2016;31(1):43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Mahmoud N. The efficacy of motor imagery training on range of motion, pain and function of patients after total knee replacement. 2016. CUNY Academic Works. http://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1235. Accessed 11 Jan 2017.

  112. Jiang C-H, Ranganathan VK, Siemionow V, Yue GH. The level of effort, rather than muscle exercise intensity determines strength gain following a six-week training. Life Sci. 2017;178:30–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Guillot A, Lebon F, Rouffet D, Champely S, Doyon J, Collet C. Muscular responses during motor imagery as a function of muscle contraction types. Int J Psychophysiol. 2007;66(1):18–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Penfield W, Rasmussen T. The cerebral cortex of man: a clinical study of localization of function. J Am Med Assoc. 1950;144(16):1412.

  115. Bernhard C, Bohm E. Cortical representation and functional significance of the corticomotoneuronal system. AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1954;72(4):473–502.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. de Luca CJ, LeFever RS, McCue MP, Xenakis AP. Behaviour of human motor units in different muscles during linearly varying contractions. J Physiol. 1982;329:113–28.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  117. Abbruzzese G, Assini A, Buccolieri A, Schieppati M, Trompetto C. Comparison of intracortical inhibition and facilitation in distal and proximal arm muscles in humans. J Physiol. 1999;514(3):895–903.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  118. Ahtiainen JP, Pakarinen A, Alen M, Kraemer WJ, Häkkinen K. Muscle hypertrophy, hormonal adaptations and strength development during strength training in strength-trained and untrained men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2003;89(6):555–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Yamada H, Kaneko K, Masuda T. Effects of voluntary activation on neuromuscular endurance analyzed by surface electromyography. Percept Mot Skills. 2002;95:613–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Amiridis IG, Martin A, Morlon B, Martin L, Cometti G, Pousson M, et al. Co-activation and tension regulating phenomena during isokinetic knee extension in sedentary and highly skilled humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1996;73(1–2):149–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Herbert RD, Gandevia SC. Muscle activation in unilateral and bilateral efforts assessed by motor nerve and cortical stimulation. J Appl Physiol. 1996;80(4):1351–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Bergmann J, Kumpulainen S, Avela J, Gruber M. Acute effects of motor imagery on performance and neuromuscular control in maximal drop jumps. J Imag Res Sport Phys Act. 2013;8(1):45–53.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Avila BJ, Brown LE, Coburn JW, Statler TA. Effects of imagery on force production and jump performance. J Exerc Physiol. 2015;18(4):42–8.

    Google Scholar 

  124. Wakefield C, Smith D. From strength to strength: a single-case design study of PETTLEP imagery frequency. Sport Psychol. 2011;25(3):305–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Krieger JW. Single versus multiple sets of resistance exercise: a meta-regression. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(6):1890–901.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Granacher U, Borde R, Hortoba T. Dose–response relationships of resistance training in healthy old adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2015;45:1693–720.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  127. Babault N, Pousson M, Ballay Y, Van Hoecke J. Activation of human quadriceps femoris during isometric, concentric, and eccentric contractions. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91(6):2628–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Schoenfeld BJ, Wilson JM, Lowery RP, Krieger JW. Muscular adaptations in low- versus high-load resistance training: a meta-analysis. Eur J Sport Sci. 2014;16(1):1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Suga T, Okita K, Morita N, Yokota T, Hirabayashi K, Horiuchi M, et al. Intramuscular metabolism during low-intensity resistance exercise with blood flow restriction. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106(4):1119–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Loenneke JP, Wilson JM, Pujol TJ, Bemben MG. Acute and chronic testosterone response to blood flow restricted exercise. Horm Metab Res. 2011;43(10):669–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Tran QT, Docherty D, Behm D. The effects of varying time under tension and volume load on acute neuromuscular responses. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006;98(4):402–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Burd NA, Andrews RJ, West DWD, Little JP, Cochran AJR, Hector AJ, et al. Muscle time under tension during resistance exercise stimulates differential muscle protein sub-fractional synthetic responses in men. J Physiol. 2012;590(Pt 2):351–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Schott J, McCully K, Rutherford OM. The role of metabolites in strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1995;71(4):337–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Taylor NF, Dodd KJ, Damiano DL. Progressive resistance exercise in physical therapy: a summary of systematic reviews. Phys Ther. 2005;85(11):1208–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Kreamer WJ, Kent A, Enzo C, Dudley GA, Dooly C, Feingenbaum MS. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sport Exerc. 2009;41(3):687–708.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Rozand V, Lebon F, Stapley PJ, Papaxanthis C, Lepers R. A prolonged motor imagery session alter imagined and actual movement durations: potential implications for neurorehabilitation. Behav Brain Res. 2016;297:67–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr. Cécil J. W. Meulenberg for proof reading the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Science and Research Centre, Institute for Kinesiology Research, University of Primorska, Garibaldijeva 1, 6000, Koper, Slovenia

    Armin H. Paravlic, Uros Marusic, Zoran Milanovic & Rado Pisot

  2. Research Laboratory “Sports Performance Optimization”, National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS), Tunis, Tunisia

    Maamer Slimani

  3. School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

    David Tod

  4. Department of Health Sciences, Alma Mater Europaea – ECM, Maribor, Slovenia

    Uros Marusic

  5. Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, Čarnojevićeva 10a, Niš, 18000, Serbia

    Zoran Milanovic

Authors
  1. Armin H. Paravlic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Maamer Slimani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. David Tod
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Uros Marusic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Zoran Milanovic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rado Pisot
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Armin H. Paravlic.

Ethics declarations

Funding

No funding was received for this work.

Conflicts of interest

Armin Paravlic, Mammer Slimani, David Tod, Uros Marusic, Zoran Milanovic, and Rado Pisot declare that they have no conflict of interest relevant to the content of this review.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Paravlic, A.H., Slimani, M., Tod, D. et al. Effects and Dose–Response Relationships of Motor Imagery Practice on Strength Development in Healthy Adult Populations: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 48, 1165–1187 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0874-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0874-8

Search

Navigation