Abstract
Wood-pastures are threatened biotopes in which trees and livestock grazing maintain high conservation values. However, browsing may threaten tree regeneration, whereas abandonment leads to tree encroachment. We studied the regeneration of trees in a grazed and abandoned boreal wood-pastures. In grazed sites, the density of young spruces (Picea abies) was high, while the density of young birches (Betula spp.) was very low. Sprucification can be prevented only by removing spruces. The number of young birches and pines (Pinus sylvestris) was correlated with the number of junipers (Juniperus communis), probably because thorny junipers protect palatable seedlings from browsing. In abandoned sites, deciduous trees and spruces regenerated abundantly. In the long term, both grazing and abandonment lead to changes in tree species compositions and low diversity wood-pastures. Landscape scale planning and disturbance dynamics are needed for the creation of new wood-pastures and the maintenance of all pasture types within the landscape.
References
Ahti, T., L. Hämet-Ahti, and J. Jalas. 1968. Vegetation zones and their sections in northwestern Europe. Annales Botanici Fennici 5: 169–211.
Bakker, E.S., H. Olff, C. Vandenberghe, K. De Maeyer, R. Smit, J.M. Gleichman, and F.W.M. Vera. 2004. Ecological anachronisms in the recruitment of temperate light-demanding tree species in wooded pastures. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 571–582. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00908.x.
Bergmeier, E., and M. Roellig. 2014. Diversity, threats and conservation of European wood-pastures. In European wood-pastures in transition, ed. T. Hartel, and T. Plieninger, 19–38. Oxon & New York: Routledge.
Bergmeier, E., J. Petermann, and E. Schröder. 2010. Geobotanical survey of wood-pasture habitats in Europe: Diversity, threats and conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 19: 2995–3014. doi:10.1007/s10531-010-9872-3.
Bignal, E.M., and D.I. McCracken. 1996. Low-intensity systems in the conservation of the countryside. Journal of Applied Ecology 33: 413–424. doi:10.2307/2404804.
Costa, A., M. Madeira, J.L. Santos, and T. Plieninger. 2014. Recent dynamics of evergreen oak wood-pastures in south-western Iberia. In European wood-pastures in transition, ed. T. Hartel, and T. Plieninger, 70–89. Oxon & New York: Routledge.
Eriksson, S., H. Skånes, M. Hammer, and M. Lönn. 2010. Current distribution of older and deciduous forests as legacies from historical use patterns in a Swedish boreal landscape (1725-2007). Forest Ecology and Management 260: 1095–1103. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.06.018.
Esseen, P.A., B. Ehnström, L. Ericson, and K. Sjöberg. 1992. Boreal forests—the focal habitats. In Ecological principles of nature conservation, ed. L. Hansson, 252–325. London: Elsevier Applied Science.
Heikinheimo, O. 1915. On the effects of slash-and-burn agriculture on the forests of Finland (In Finnish). Acta Forestalia Fennica 4: 1–264.
Hester, A.J., P. Millard, G.J. Baillie, and R. Wendler. 2004. How does timing of browsing affect above- and below-ground growth of Betula pendula, Pinus sylvestris and Sorbus aucuparia? Oikos 105: 536–550.
Jackman, S. 2015. pscl: Classes and methods for R developed in the Political Science Computational Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California. R package version 1.4.9.
Jääskeläinen, E., ed. 2003a. Management practices and costs in traditional rural biotopes (In Finnish). Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö & SYKE.
Jääskeläinen, E., ed. 2003b. Wooded traditional rural biotopes (In Finnish). Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö & SYKE.
Kouki, J., K. Arnold, and P. Martikainen. 2004. Long-term persistence of aspen—a key host for many threatened species—is endangered in old-growth conservation areas in Finland. Journal for Nature Conservation 12: 41–52. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2003.08.002.
Laine, T., and P. Heikkilä. 2011. Management of the habitats of the white-backed wood-pecker (In Finnish). In Metsien ennallistamisen ja luonnonhoidon opas, ed. M. Similä, and K. Junninen, 103–109. Helsinki: Metsähallitus.
Lampimäki, T. 1939. On the grazing of cattle in forests (In Finnish). Silva Fennica 50: 1–99.
McAdam, J.H., P.J. Burgess, A.R. Graves, A. Rigueiro-Rodríguez, and M.R. Mosquera-Losada. 2009. Classifications and functions of agroforestry systems in Europe. In Agroforestry in Europe: Current Status and Future Prospects, ed. A. Rigueiro-Rodríguez, J.H. McAdam, and M.R. Mosquera-Losada, 21–41. Springer.
Mustonen, K., and S. Saine. 2013. White-backed woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos) as a management umbrella species—effects of habitat management on tree regeneration (In Finnish). Bachelor of Science Thesis, University of Jyväskylä.
Nilsson, S.G. 1997. Forests in the temperate-boreal transition: Natural and man-made features. Ecological Bulletins 46: 61–71.
Oksanen, J., F.G. Blanchet, R. Kindt, P. Legendre, P.R. Minchin, R.B. O’Hara, G.L. Simpson, and P. Solymos, et al. 2013. vegan: Community ecology package. R package version 2.0-10.
Oldén, A., and P. Halme. 2016. Microhabitat determines how grazing affects bryophytes in wood-pastures. Biodiversity and Conservation 25: 1151–1165. doi:10.1007/s10531-016-1115-9.
Oldén, A., K.J. Raatikainen, K. Tervonen, and P. Halme. 2016. Grazing and soil pH are biodiversity drivers of vascular plants and bryophytes in boreal wood-pastures. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 222: 171–184. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2016.02.018.
Olff, H., F.W.M. Vera, J. Bokdam, E.S. Bakker, J.M. Gleichman, K. de Maeyer, and R. Smit. 1999. Shifting mosaics in grazed woodlands driven by the alternation of plant facilitation and competition. Plant Biology 1: 127–137.
Priha, M., ed. 2003. Wood-pastures (In Finnish). Syke & Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö, Helsinki.
Pykälä, J. 2001. Maintaining biodiversity through traditional animal husbandry (In Finnish with English summary). Suomen ympäristö 495, Suomen ympäristökeskus, Helsinki.
R Core Team. 2015. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/.
Schulman, A., A. Alanen, C.-A. Hæggström, A.-P. Huhta, J. Jantunen, H. Kekäläinen, L. Lehtomaa, and J. Pykälä, et al. 2008. Traditional rural biotopes (In Finnish). In Suomen luontotyyppien uhanalaisuus—Osa 2: Luontotyyppien kuvaukset, ed. A. Raunio, A. Schulman, and T. Kontula, 397–466. Suomen ympäristö 8/2008, Suomen ympäristökeskus, Helsinki.
Smit, C., and J.L. Ruifrok. 2011. From protégé to nurse plant: Establishment of thorny shrubs in grazed temperate woodlands. Journal of Vegetation Science 22: 377–386. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2011.01264.x.
Smit, C., J. Den Ouden, and H. Müller-Schärer. 2006. Unpalatable plants facilitate tree sapling survival in wooded pastures. Journal of Applied Ecology 43: 305–312. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01147.x.
Takala, T., J. Kouki, and T. Tahvanainen. 2014. Bryophytes and their microhabitats in coniferous forest pastures: Should they be considered in the pasture management? Biodiversity and Conservation 23: 3127–3142. doi:10.1007/s10531-014-0769-4.
Vainio, M., H. Kekäläinen, A. Alanen, and J. Pykälä. 2001. Traditional rural biotopes in Finland. Final report of the nationwide inventory (In Finnish with English summary). Suomen ympäristö 527, Suomen ympäristökeskus, Helsinki.
Wallenius, T.H., S. Lilja, and T. Kuuluvainen. 2007. Fire history and tree species composition in managed Picea abies stands in southern Finland: Implications for restoration. Forest Ecology and Management 250: 89–95. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2007.03.016.
Vandenberghe, C., F. Freléchoux, F. Gadallah, and A. Buttler. 2006. Competitive effects of herbaceous vegetation on tree seedling emergence, growth and survival: Does gap size matter? Journal of Vegetation Science 17: 481–488.
Vandenberghe, C., F. Freléchoux, M.-A. Moravie, F. Gadallah, and A. Buttler. 2007. Short-term ffects of cattle browsing on tree sapling growth in mountain wooded pastures. Plant Ecology 188: 253–264. doi:10.1007/s11258-006-9160-1.
VanUytvanck, J., and K. Verheyen. 2014. Grazing as a tool for wood-pasture restoration and management. In European wood-pastures in transition, ed. T. Hartel, and T. Plieninger, 149–167. Oxon & New York: Routledge.
VanUytvanck, J., D. Maes, D. Vandenhaute, and M. Hoffmann. 2008. Restoration of woodpasture on former agricultural land: The importance of safe sites and time gaps before grazing for tree seedlings. Biological Conservation 141: 78–88. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.09.001.
Venables, W.N., and B.D. Ripley. 2002. Modern applied statistics with S. New York: Springer.
Acknowledgments
We thank Niina Onttonen, Kaisa Mustonen, and Sonja Saine for their help during field work, and the owners of the wood-pastures for collaboration during the larger project. The study was funded by the Kone Foundation (personal grants to A.O.) and the Finnish Ministry of the Environment (PUTTE grant to P.H.).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Oldén, A., Komonen, A., Tervonen, K. et al. Grazing and abandonment determine different tree dynamics in wood-pastures. Ambio 46, 227–236 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0821-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0821-6