Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Microbial Contamination of Groundwater at Small Community Water Supplies in Finland

  • Report
  • Published:
AMBIO Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The raw water quality and associations between the factors considered as threats to water safety were studied in 20 groundwater supplies in central Finland in 2002–2004. Faecal contaminations indicated by the appearance of Escherichia coli or intestinal enterococci were present in five small community water supplies, all these managed by local water cooperatives. Elevated concentrations of nutrients in raw water were linked with the presence of faecal bacteria. The presence of on-site technical hazards to water safety, such as inadequate well construction and maintenance enabling surface water to enter into the well and the insufficient depth of protective soil layers above the groundwater table, showed the vulnerability of the quality of groundwater used for drinking purposes. To minimize the risk of waterborne illnesses, the vulnerable water supplies need to be identified and appropriate prevention measures such as disinfection should be applied.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Photograph 1
Photograph 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anonymous. 1997. Safe water from every tap: Improving water service to small communities. Washington, D.C., USA: Committee on Small Water Supply Systems, National Research Council, National Academy Press. http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=5291&page=1.

  • Boyer, D.G., and J.P.S. Neel. 2010. Nitrate and fecal coliform concentration differences at the soil/bedrock interface in Appalachian silvopasture, pasture, and forest. Agroforest Systems 79: 89–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cool, G., M.J. Rodriguez, C. Bouchard, P. Levallois, and F. Joerin. 2010. Evaluation of the vulnerability to contamination of drinking water systems for rural regions in Québec, Canada. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 53: 615–638.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davison, A., D. Deere, M. Stevens, G. Howard, and J. Bartram. 2006. Water safety plan manual. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organisation (WHO). http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsp_manual.pdf.

  • EPA. 2001. Method 1601: Male-specific (F+) and somatic coliphage in water by two-step enrichment procedure, 31 pp. Washington D.C., USA: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water.

  • European Union. 1998. Council directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption. Official Journal of European Communities L330: 32–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Molina, M.C., A. Alvarez, and M. Espigares. 2004. Presence of hepatitis A virus in water and its relationship with indicators of fecal contamination. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 159: 197–208.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Finnish Meteorological Institute. 2004. Monthly reports from May 2002 to April 2004. Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Meteorological Institute (in Finnish).

  • Ford, T., G. Rupp, P. Butterfield, and A. Camper, eds. 2005. Protecting public health in small water systems. Report of an International Colloquium, May 9–12, 2004. Bozeman: Montana State University.

  • Gilgen, M., D. Germann, J. Lüthy, and P.H. Hübner. 1997. Three-step isolation method for sensitive detection of enterovirus, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus, and small round structured viruses in water samples. International Journal of Food Microbiology 37: 189–199.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, A.E., L.S. Clesceri, and A.D. Eaton. 1995. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 19th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hambsch, B., K. Bockle, and J.H.M. van Lieverloo. 2007. Incidence of faecal contaminations in chlorinated and non-chlorinated distribution systems of neighbouring European countries. Journal of Water and Health 5: 119–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hänninen, M.L., H. Haajanen, T. Pummi, K. Wermundsen, M.L. Katila, H. Sarkkinen, I.T. Miettinen, and H. Rautelin. 2003. Detection and typing of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli and analysis of indicator organisms in three waterborne outbreaks in Finland. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69: 1391–1396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinonen-Tanski, H., and J. Uusi-Kämppä. 2001. Runoff of faecal microorganisms and nutrients from perennial grass ley after application of slurry and mineral fertiliser. Water Science and Technology 43(12): 143–146.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hobbie, J.E., R.J. Daley, and S. Jasper. 1977. Use of nucleopore filters for counting bacteria by fluorescence microscopy. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 33: 1225–1228.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hrudey, S.E., and E.J. Hrudey. 2004. Safe drinking water. Lessons from recent outbreaks in affluent nations. London, UK: IWA Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hrudey, S.E., and E.J. Hrudey. 2007. Published case studies of waterborne disease outbreaks—Evidence of a recurrent threat. Water Environment Research 79(3): 233–245.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hulsmann, A. 2005. Small systems large problems—A European inventory of small water systems and associated problems. WeKnow (Web-based European Knowledge Network on Water)/Endware Report, 1 June 2005.

  • Hunter, P.R., K. Pond, P. Jagals, and J. Cameron. 2009. An assessment of the costs and benefits of interventions aimed at improving rural community water supplies in developed countries. Science of the Total Environment 407: 3681–3685.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ISO 10304-1. 1992. Water quality. Determination of dissolved fluoride, chloride, nitrite, orthophosphate, bromide, nitrate and sulfate ions, using liquid chromatography of ions. Part 1. Method for water with low contamination. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

  • ISO 17995. 2005. Water quality. Detection and enumeration of thermotolerant Campylobacter species. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

  • ISO 6222. 1999. Water quality. Enumeration of culturable micro-organisms. Colony count by the inoculation in a nutrient agar culture medium. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

  • ISO 7899-2. 2000. Water quality. Detection and enumeration of intestinal enterococci. Part 2. Membrane filtration method. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

  • ISO 9308-1. 2000. Water quality. Detection and enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria. Part 1. Membrane filtration method. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

  • Isomäki, E., Valve, M., Kivimäki, A.-L., and Lahti, K. 2008. Environment guide, operation and maintenance of small waterworks: 129 pp, Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Environment Institute. http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?contentid=304594&lan=en.

  • Joerin, F., G. Cool, M.J. Rodriguez, M. Gignac, and C. Bouchard. 2010. Using multi-criteria decision analysis to assess the vulnerability of drinking water utilities. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 166: 313–330.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kapperud, G., T. Vardund, E. Skjerve, E. Hornes, and T.E. Michaelsen. 1993. Detection of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica in foods and water by immunomagnetic separation, nested polymerase chain reactions, and colorimetric detection of amplified DNA. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59(9): 2938–2944.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kay, D., J. Watkins, C.A. Francis, A.P. Wyn-Jones, C.M. Stapleton, L. Fewtrell, M.D. Wyer, and D. Drury. 2007. The microbiological quality of seven large commercial private water supplies in the United Kingdom. Journal of Water and Health 5: 523–538.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kukkula, M., L. Maunula, E. Silvennoinen, and C.H. von Bonsdorff. 1999. Outbreak of viral gastroenteritis due to drinking water contaminated by Norwalk-like viruses. Journal of Infectious Diseases 180: 1771–1776.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lahti, K., and L. Hiisvirta. 1995. Causes of waterborne outbreaks in community water systems in Finland: 1980–1992. Water Science and Technology 31(5–6): 33–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lapinlampi, T., and S. Raassina, eds. 2002. Water supply and sewer systems 1998–2000. The Finnish Environment 541. Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Environment Institute (in Finnish).

  • Lehtola, M.J., I.T. Miettinen, T. Vartiainen, P. Rantakokko, A. Hirvonen, and P.J. Martikainen. 2003. Impact of UV disinfection on microbially available phosphorus, organic carbon, and microbial growth in drinking water. Water Research 37(5): 1064–1070.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Locas, A., C. Barthe, A.B. Margolin, and P. Payment. 2008. Groundwater microbiological quality in Canadian drinking water municipal wells. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 54: 472–478.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maticic, B. 1999. The impact of agriculture on ground water quality in Slovenia: standards and strategy. Agricultural Water Management 40: 235–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miettinen, I.T., O. Zacheus, T. Pitkänen, M. Kuusi, and T. Vartiainen. 2007. Waterborne outbreaks in Finland in 1998–2005 [cited 2 May 2008]. http://www-domino.lippmann.lu/SWAP2007/Session8/08b%20Miettinen%20et%20al%20SWAP2007.pdf.

  • Miettinen, I.T., O. Zacheus, C.H. von Bonsdorff, and T. Vartiainen. 2001. Waterborne epidemics in Finland in 1998–1999. Water Science and Technology 43(12): 67–71.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NMKL 71. 1999. Salmonella. Detection in foods. Oslo, Norway: Nordic Committee on Food Analysis (NMKL).

  • Paton, A.W., and J.C. Paton. 2002. Direct detection and characterization of Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli by multiplex PCR for stx1, stx2, eae, ehxA and saa. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40: 271–274.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pitkänen, T., P. Paakkari, I.T. Miettinen, H. Heinonen-Tanski, L. Paulin, and M.-L. Hänninen. 2007. Comparison of media for enumeration of coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli in non-disinfected water. Journal of Microbiological Methods 68: 522–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pronk, M., N. Goldscheider, and J. Zopfi. 2007. Particle-size distribution as indicator for fecal bacteria contamination of drinking water from karst springs. Environmental Science and Technology 41: 8400–8405.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reasoner, D.J., and E.E. Geldreich. 1985. A new medium for the enumeration and subculture of bacteria from potable water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 49: 1–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, H.Y., G. Nichols, C. Lane, I.R. Lake, and P.R. Hunter. 2009. Microbiological surveillance of private water supplies in England—The impact of environmental and climate factors on water quality. Water Research 43: 2159–2168.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saarijärvi, K., P. Virkajärvi, H. Heinonen-Tanski, and I. Taipalinen. 2004. N and P leaching and microbial contamination from intensively managed pasture and cut sward on sandy soil in Finland. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 104: 621–630.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schijven, J.F., S.M. Hassanizadeh, and A.M.D. Husman. 2010. Vulnerability of unconfined aquifers to virus contamination. Water Research 44(4): 1170–1181.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schijven, J.F., J.H.C. Mülschlegel, S.M. Hassanizadeh, P.F.M. Teunis, and A.M. de Roda Husman. 2006. Determination of protection zones for Dutch groundwater wells against virus contamination—Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis. Journal of Water and Health 4(3): 297–312.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schoonover, J.E., and B.G. Lockaby. 2010. Land cover impacts on stream nutrients and fecal coliform in the lower Piedmont of West Georgia. Journal of Hydrology 331: 371–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SFS 3036. 1981. Determination of chemical oxygen demand (COD Mn or KMnO 4 number) in water. Oxidation with permanganate. Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Standards Association (SFS).

  • SFS-EN 1189. 1997. Water quality. Determination of phosphorus. Ammonium molybdate spectrometric method. Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Standards Association (SFS).

  • SFS-EN 1484. 1997. Water analysis. Guidelines for the determination of total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Standards Association (SFS).

  • Tallon, P., B. Magajna, C. Lofranco, and K.T. Leung. 2005. Microbial indicators of faecal contamination in water: A current perspective. Water, Air, and Soil pollution 166: 139–166.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thisted Lambertz, S., A. Ballagi-Pordány, A. Nilsson, P. Norberg, and M.-L. Danielsson-Tham. 1996. A comparison between a PCR method and a conventional culture method for detecting pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica in food. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 81: 303–308.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Lieverloo, J.H.M., G.A.M. Mesman, G.L. Bakker, P.K. Bakkelaar, A. Hames, and G. Medema. 2007. Probability of detecting and quantifying faecal contaminations of drinking water by periodically sampling for E. coli: A simulation model study. Water Research 41: 4299–4308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vartiainen, T., A. Liimatainen, and P. Kauranen. 1987. The use of size exclusion columns in determination of the quality and quantity of humus in raw waters and drinking waters. Science of the Total Environment 62: 75–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vinjé, J., and P.G. Koopmans. 1996. Molecular detection and epidemiology of small round-structured viruses in outbreaks of gastroenteritis in the Netherlands. Journal of Infectious Diseases 174(3): 610–615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. 1997. Guidelines for drinking water quality. Volume 3: Surveillance and control of community supplies, 2nd edn. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/smallcommunity/en/index.html.

  • WHO. 2004. Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 3rd edn. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3/en/.

Download references

Acknowledgments

Markku Lehtola and Johanna Rinta-Kanto are acknowledged for their work with the norovirus concentration. Panu Rantakokko is thanked for the humic fractions analysis and Tarja Pohjanvirta for shigatoxin analysis. Acknowledgment belongs also to Jarmo Siekkinen, who gave us water supply information essential for the study. The authors are also grateful to Prof. Marja-Liisa Hänninen for the critical reading of the manuscript. This study was supported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and by the Ministry of Education (Graduate School in Environmental Health-SYTYKE).

Author information

Author notes

  1. Heidi Lettojärvi

    Present address: ÅF-Consult Oy, P.O. Box 61, 01601, Vantaa, Finland

  2. Annika Heikkilä

    Present address: Haapaveden kaupunki, Anttilantie 6, 92620, Piippola, Finland

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Science, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211, Kuopio, Finland

    Tarja Pitkänen, Päivi Karinen, Heidi Lettojärvi, Annika Heikkilä, Reetta Maunula, Vesa Aula & Helvi Heinonen-Tanski

  2. Department of Environmental Health, National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, 70701, Kuopio, Finland

    Tarja Pitkänen, Ilkka T. Miettinen & Asko Vepsäläinen

  3. Research Department, Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, P.O. Box 92, 70701, Kuopio, Finland

    Henry Kuronen, Liina-Lotta Nousiainen & Sinikka Pelkonen

Authors
  1. Tarja Pitkänen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Päivi Karinen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ilkka T. Miettinen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Heidi Lettojärvi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Annika Heikkilä
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Reetta Maunula
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Vesa Aula
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Henry Kuronen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Asko Vepsäläinen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Liina-Lotta Nousiainen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Sinikka Pelkonen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Helvi Heinonen-Tanski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tarja Pitkänen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pitkänen, T., Karinen, P., Miettinen, I.T. et al. Microbial Contamination of Groundwater at Small Community Water Supplies in Finland. AMBIO 40, 377–390 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-010-0102-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-010-0102-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation