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Profiling and improving the duty-cycling performance of Linux-based IoT devices

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Abstract

Minimizing the energy consumption of Linux-based devices is an essential step towards their wide deployment in various IoT scenarios. Energy saving methods such as duty-cycling aim to address this constraint by limiting the amount of time the device is powered on. In this work we study and improve the amount of time a Linux-based IoT device is powered on to accomplish its tasks. We analyze the processes of system boot up and shutdown on two platforms, the Raspberry Pi 3 and Raspberry Pi Zero Wireless, and enhance duty-cycling performance by identifying and disabling time-consuming or unnecessary units initialized in the userspace. We also study whether SD card speed and SD card capacity utilization affect boot up duration and energy consumption. In addition, we propose Pallex, a parallel execution framework built on top of the systemd init system to run a user application concurrently with userspace initialization. We validate the performance impact of Pallex when applied to various IoT application scenarios: (1) capturing an image, (2) capturing and encrypting an image, (3) capturing and classifying an image using the k-nearest neighbor algorithm, and (4) capturing images and sending them to a cloud server. Our results show that system lifetime is increased by 18.3%, 16.8%, 13.9% and 30.2%, for these application scenarios, respectively.

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Notes

  1. Until October 2012, the RPi platform used a three stage bootloader, with an additional file, loader.bin, executed by the GPU between the bootcode.bin and start.elf stages.

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Acknowledgements

This research has been partially supported by the Santa Clara Valley Water District Research Grant SCWD02. This project involves the development of a flood monitoring system where Linux-based wireless systems, which rely on solar or battery power, capture images for analysis using machine learning to classify and report the debris carried by rivers and streams.

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  1. Internet of Things Research Lab, Department of Computer Engineering, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, USA

    Immanuel Amirtharaj, Tai Groot & Behnam Dezfouli

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  1. Immanuel Amirtharaj
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Appendix 1: List of units in Raspbian stretch lite (RSL)

Appendix 1: List of units in Raspbian stretch lite (RSL)

In this section, we present an overview of the units available in RSL. All units except those in the EU category can be disabled if they are not necessary for the application scenario being considered.

1.1 1.1 Essential units (EU)

  • boot.mount This unit helps systemd resolve dependency trees for units that depend on mounting /boot before activation.

  • dev-mmcblk0p2.device This unit brings the root partition on the SDC into the scope of systemd so that units that require the root partition’s mount to finish before activation can resolve their dependencies properly.

  • dev-mqueue.mount This unit informs systemd when the POSIX message queues for internal system messages is ready.

  • kmod.service This service contains modprobe, which is used for loading and unloading kernel modules.

  • kmod-static-nodes.service This service creates a list of required static modules for the loaded kernel.

  • run-rpc_pipefs.mount This unit directs systemd on how to mount the RAM-based pipefs, which is used every time a process is forked or a pipe (“|”) is used.

  • sys-kernel-debug.mount Similar to dev-mmcblk0p2.device, this unit helps systemd resolve dependencies correctly. The actual mounting of debugfs occurs within udev, which is the daemon that detects hardware changes.

  • sys-kernel-config.mount This unit prevents the system from reaching sysinit.target until the kernel configuration parameters are fully loaded into the kernel from the Configuration File System (configfs).

  • systemd-fsck@.service and systemd-fsck-root.service These services run fsck on each partition to ensure file system consistency. This is an important step, and does not run every time unless there are problems detected on the SDC.

  • systemd-journald.service Many programs rely on journald for logging output, including the kernel (through kmsg). Therefore, it should not be disabled. However, in order to speed up its initialization, it may be useful to lower the size limit of the journal logs since a dependency, systemd-journal-flush.service, must rotate this log file on initialization.

  • systemd-modules-load.service This service starts early in the userspace initialization phase to load static kernel modules.

  • systemd-remount-fs.service In the beginning of the userspace initialization phase, this service mounts the necessary API filesystems for the kernel (such as /proc, /sys, or /dev) to a RAM disk.

  • systemd-random-seed.service This service loads the random seed and saves it at shutdown to enable the device to generate a new value when the system restarts.

  • systemd-sysctl.service By loading kernel configurations, this service enables systemctl to perform as expected.

  • systemd-udevd.service This service initializes udev, a daemon that listens to kernel uevents and matches them against specified rules, to run scripts. For example, it can load drivers when a new device is attached, or mount a USB drive when it is plugged in.

  • systemd-udev-trigger.service Devices plugged in before the system is powered on might not generate the kernel messages necessary for udev to discover them. This service probes and detects devices that udev would not normally discover.

  • sudo.service This service clears cached sudo privilege escalations to enforce user re-authentication after every reboot.

  • systemd-tmpfiles-setup.service and systemd-tmpfiles-setup-dev.service Mount /tmp and delete the old files. These services also create any files that are specified by user-provided configuration.

  • systemd-rfkill.service This service restores the rfkill state at the beginning of userspace initialization to ensure it matches the status saved before shutdown. Therefore, if the wireless peripherals (typically WiFi or Bluetooth) had rfkill preventing their use before shutdown, they will remain disabled on reboot.

  • systemd-update-utmp.service and systemd-update-utmp-runlevel.service Record and manage the system uptime, the logged-in users, and users’ log-in method (such as ssh, tty, and serial port).

  • systemd-user-sessions.service This service enables user log-in and denies log-in attempts after the shutdown signal has been sent. If a device in the field does not require log-in capabilities, this service does not need to be started automatically. For example, it can be started by a helper program when a GPIO pin is pulled high.

  • systemd-logind.service This service is responsible for tasks such as user session management, processor usage quotas, and device access management.

1.2 1.2 Networking-related services (NRS)

  • avahi-daemon.service This service enables programs to discover and publish services and hosts running on a local network. Note that this service can significantly slow the speed of the ifdown command and therefore the shutdown process if not completely uninstalled. Unless necessary for the user application, avahi-daemon should be uninstalled.

  • bluetoothd.service Daemon for controlling the Bluetooth interface. Bluez, bluetoothctl, and many other Bluetooth-related utilities communicate through this daemon.

  • dhcpcd.service The daemon responsible for managing the DHCP protocol on all targeted network interfaces. This service can be disabled if the device does not require a network connection or is guaranteed a static IP address. The duration of IP allocation depends on external factors including link quality and the load of access point.

  • hciuart.service This is responsible for initializing the HCI bluetooth interface. HCI stands for ”Host-to-Controller-Interface” and it is controlled over a serial UART interface.

  • networking.service Completes the configuration of WiFi and Ethernet interfaces based on the settings available in the /etc/network/interfaces configuration file.

  • nfs-config.service This service, along with nfs-common.service, loads configuration details applicable to Network File Systems (NFS).

  • rsyncd.service Daemon that listens on port 873 for incoming rsync file transfer requests. rsync is used for efficiently transferring and synchronizing files across computer systems.

  • rpcbind.service This service accepts requests for Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) and binds them to TCP ports for access and control.

  • sshd.service This service belongs to the OpenSSH package. It runs in the background to listen for and accept or deny incoming ssh connections according to a user-defined configuration file.

  • systemd-hostnamed.service This service can be used to control the hostname and related metadata by user programs.

  • systemd-networkd.service Brings up the system’s network manager and provides it with discovered networks, both physical and virtual.

  • systemd-resolved.service Provides local DNS resolution for namespaces such as localhost or those added by the user to overlay DNS provided by an external source.

  • systemd-timesyncd.service Used for time synchronization across the network.

1.3 1.3 Memory management services

  • dphys-swapfile.service This service initializes, mounts, unmounts, and deletes swap files on the SDC. If the available RAM is enough for the user application, then disabling this service results in a performance enhancement in terms of faster boot up time and prolonged SDC lifetime. This service is usually required when the user application involves loading large machine learning models and data sets.

1.4 1.4 I/O-related services

  • alsa-utils.service Represents the tools relating to the Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA).

  • alsa-restore.service Initializes and restores the last state of the RPi’s onboard soundcard.

1.5 1.5 Miscellaneous units

  • fake-hwclock.service This service saves the current time to a file at shutdown and loads it at boot up time. Without this service, the RPi is unaware of the current epoch time until it establishes a network connection. An incorrect epoch value may cause some files to appear as if they are edited in the future.

  • plymouth.service Provides a flicker-free graphical boot up process. Other related services include plymouth-quit.service, plymouth-quit-wait.service, plymouth-start.service, and plymouth-read-write.service.

  • raspi-config.service This service loads configuration changes made by the user such as processor governance, display overscan, and filesystem partition expansions, and applies them on reboot.

  • rsyslog.service Tools for log processing and conversion.

  • console-setup.service Configures the fonts, screen resolution, keyboard layout, etc., for virtual tty terminals.

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Amirtharaj, I., Groot, T. & Dezfouli, B. Profiling and improving the duty-cycling performance of Linux-based IoT devices. J Ambient Intell Human Comput 11, 1967–1995 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-019-01197-2

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