Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A multidisciplinary study of calcaneal trauma in Roman Italy: a possible case of crucifixion?

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Crucifixion is a cruel method of execution. This capital punishment was perfected during the Roman Empire. Despite being a frequent practice, there is only one well-documented anthropological case of crucifixion in the world at the Jerusalem burial cave (Giv’at ha-Mivtar, first century AD). We found a particular lesion on the foot of a skeleton from an isolated Roman burial discovered by excavation in 2007 in northern Italy. Here we suggest crucifixion as a possible cause of the lesion, but this interpretation is complicated by the poor preservation of the bone surfaces and the damage and holes in other skeletal parts. To assess the biological identity of the deceased and the possible effects of ante-mortem violence on this subject, we performed an integrated (anthropological, taphonomic, and genetic) analysis of the remains. Burials showing evidence of violence or deviant burials may shed new light on past human societies. In this case, our interdisciplinary approach provides insight into a particular form of capital punishment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acsádi G, Nemeskéri J (1970) History of human life span and mortality. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson S, Bankier AT, Barrell BG, de Bruijn MH, Coulson AR, Drouin J, Eperon IC, Nierlich DP, Roe BA, Sanger F, Schreier PH, Smith AJH, Staden R, Young IG (1981) Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome. Nature 290:457–465

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews RM, Kubacka I, Chinnery PF, Lightowlers RN, Turnbull DM, Howell N (1999) Reanalysis and revision of the Cambridge reference sequence for human mitochondrial DNA. Nat Genet 23:147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aufderheide AC, Rodrìguez-Martìn C (1998) The Cambridge encyclopaedia of human paleopathology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Balter M (2005) Deviant’ burials reveal death on the fringe in ancient societies. Science 310:613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banzi E, Livaccari M, Tecchiati U (2009) Villabassa. Atti Acc Rov Agiati 9:231–267

    Google Scholar 

  • Belcastro MG, Giusberti G (1997) La necropoli romano-imperiale di Casalecchio di Reno (Bologna. II-IV sec. d.C.): analisi morfometrica sincronica e diacronica. Riv Antropol 75:129–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Bindford LR (1981) Bones: ancient men and modern myths. Academic Press, New-York

    Google Scholar 

  • Boschin F, Crezzini J (2012) Morphometrical analysis on cut marks using a 3D digital microscope. Int J Osteoarchaeol 22:549–562

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bove L (1967) Due nuove iscrizioni di Pozzuoli e di Cuma. Rendiconti Accademia Archeologica Lettere Belle Arti Napoli, 207

  • Brothwell DR (1981) Digging up bones. Cornell University Press, Ithaca

    Google Scholar 

  • Buikstra JE, Ubelaker DH (1994) Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series 44

  • Cantarella E (2005) I supplizi capitali. Origine e funzioni delle pene di morte in Grecia e a Roma. Milano, BUR Saggi

    Google Scholar 

  • Caramelli D, Lalueza-Fox C, Capelli C, Lari M, Sampietro ML, Gigli E, Milani L, Pilli E, Guimaraes S, Chiarelli B, Marin VT, Casoli A, Stanyon R, Bertranpetit J, Barbujani G (2007) Genetic analysis of the skeletal remains attributed to Francesco Petrarca. Forensic Sci Int 173:36–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colard T, Delannoy Y, Naji S, Rottier S, Blondiaux J (2014) The utilisation of carnivore scavenging evidence in the interpretation of a protohistoric French pit burial. J Archaeol Sci 52:108–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper A, Poinar HN (2000) Ancient DNA: do it right or not at all. Science 289:1139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards WD, Gabel WJ, Hosmer FE (1986) On the physical death of Jesus Christ. JAMA 255:1455–1463

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferembach D, Schwidetzy I, Stloukal M (1980) Recommendation for age and sex diagnoses of skeletons. J Hum Evol 9:517–549

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher JW (1995) Bone surface modifications in zooarchaeology. J Archaeol Method Theory 2:7–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haas N (1970) Anthropological observations on the skeletal remains from Giv’at ha-Mivtar. Israel Explor J 20:38–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Haglund WD (1997a) Dogs and coyotes: post-mortem involvement with human remains. In: Haglund WD, Sorg MH (eds) Forensic taphonomy: the postmortem fate of human remains. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Haglund WD (1997b) Rodents and human remains. In: Haglund WD, Sorg MH (eds) Forensic taphonomy: the postmortem fate of human remains. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Haglund WD, Reay DT, Swindler DR (1988) Tooth mark artefacts and survival of bones in animal scavenged human skeletons. J For Sci 33:985–997

    Google Scholar 

  • Haglund WD, Reay DT, Swindler DR (1989) Canid scavenging/disarticulation sequence of human remains in the Pacific Northwest. J For Sci 34:587–606

    Google Scholar 

  • Haglund WD, Reay DT, Swindler DR (1993) Problems of recovering partial human remains at different times and locations concerns for death investigators. J For Sci 38:69–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes G (1980) Prey bones and predators: potential ecologic information from analysis of bone sites. OSSA 7:75–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill AP (1979) Disarticulation and scattering of mammal skeletons. Paleobiology 5:261–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanz F, Grossschmidt K (2006) Head injuries of roman gladiators. Forensic Sci Int 160:207–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kloss-Brandstätter A, Pacher D, Schönherr S, Weissensteiner H, Binna R, Specht G, Kronenberg F (2011) HaploGrep: a fast and reliable algorithm for automatic classification of mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. Hum Mutat 32:25–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy C (1985) Dental wear in the Libben population: its functional pattern and role in the determination of adult skeletal age at death. Am J Phys Anthropol 68:47–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy CO, Meindl RS, Pryzbeck TR, Mensforth RP (1985) Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death. Am J Phys Anthropol 68:15–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyman RL (1994) Vertebrate taphonomy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Maat GJR (1993) Bone preservation, decay and its related conditions in ancient human bones from Kuwait. Int J Osteoarchaeol 3:77–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manouvrier M (1892) La determination de la stature d’après les grands os des membres. Bull Mém Soc Anthrop (Paris) II s 4:347–402

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin DL, Harrod RP (2015) Bioarchaeological contributions to the study of violence. Yearb Phys Anthropol 156:116–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin R, Saller K (1957-1962) Lehrbuch der Anthropologie. Stuttgart: Fischer-Verlag

  • Maslen MW, Mitchell PD (2006) Medical theories on the cause of death in crucifixion. J Royal Soc Med 99:185–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milner GR, Smith VG (1989) Carnivore alteration of human bone from a late prehistoric site in Illinois. Am J Phys Anthropol 79:43–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moraitis K, Spiliopoulou C (2010) Forensic implications of carnivore scavenging on human remains recovered from outdoor locations in Greece. J Forensic Legal Med 17:298–303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moretti E, Arrighi S, Boschin F, Crezzini J, Aureli D, Ronchitelli A (2015) Using 3D microscopy to analyze experimental cut marks on animal bones produced with different stone tools. Ethnobiology Letters 6:4–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ortalli J (2010) Morti inquiete e tombe anomale tra storia, antropologia e archeologia. In Belcastro MG & Ortalli J (eds) Sepolture anomale. All’Insegna del Giglio, Borgo S.Lorenzo - Firenze, pp 23–37

  • Paäbo S, Poinar H, Serre D, Jaenicke-Despres V, Hebler J, Rohland N, Kuch M, Krause J, Vigilant L, Hofreiter M (2004) Genetic analyses from ancient DNA. Ann Rev Genet 38:645–679

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patel F (1994) Artefact in forensic medicine: post-mortem rodent activity. J Forensic Sci 39:257–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pittoni E (2009) Necropoli of Pill’e Matta Quartucciu (Cagliari, Sardinia): wild bee and solitary wasp activity and bone diagenetic factors. Int J Osteoarchaeol 19:386–396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quatrehomme G, Iscan MY (1997) Post-mortem skeletal lesions. Forensic Sci Int 89:155–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Retief FP, Cilliers L (2003) The history and pathology of crucifixion. S Afr Med J 93:938–941

    Google Scholar 

  • Rohland N, Hofreiter M (2007) Ancient DNA extraction from bones and teeth. Nat Protoc 2:756–762

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubini M, Grilletto R, Fulcheri E (1989) Breve nota su di un presunto cranio “chiodato” rinvenuto nella necropoli romana di Monterotondo (II-III sec. d.C.). Riv Antropol 67:301–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruff CB, Holt BM, Niskanen M, Sladék V, Berner M, Garofalo E, Garvin HM, Hora M, Maijanen H, Niinimäki S, Salo K, Schuplerová E, Tompkins D (2012) Stature and body mass estimation from skeletal remains in the European Holocene. Am J Phys Anthropol 148(4):601–617

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selvaggio MM, Wilder J (2001) Identifying the involvement of multiple carnivore taxa with archaeological bone assemblages. J Archaeol Sci 28:465–470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sjøvold T (1990) Estimation of stature from long bones utilizing the line of organic correlation. Hum Evol 5:431–447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tenney SM (1964) On death by crucifixion. Am Heart J 68:286–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trotter M, Gleser G (1952) Estimation of stature from long bones of American Whites and Negroes. Am J Phys Anthropol 10:469–514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trotter M, Gleser G (1958) A re-evaluation of estimation of stature based on measurements of stature taken during life and of long bones after death. Am J Phys Anthropol 16:79–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trotter M, Gleser G (1977) Corrigenda to “estimation of stature from long limb bones of American Whites and Negroes,” American Journal Physical Anthropology (1952). Am J Phys Anthropol 47:355–356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villa P, Mahieu E (1991) Breakage patterns of human long bones. Hum Evol 21:27–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willerslev E, Cooper A (2005) Ancient DNA. Proc Biol Sci 272(1558):3–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willey P, Lynn ML (1989) Canid modification of human remains: implications for time-since-death estimations. J Forensic Sci 34:894–901

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zias J, Sekeles E (1985) The crucified man from Giv’at ha-Mitvar: a reappraisal. Israel Explor J 35:22–27

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the Soprintendenza Archeologia, Belle Arti e Paesaggio per le province di Verona, Rovigo e Vicenza for providing the skeletal remains used in our study. We thank Sebastiano Pedrocco, who performed a preliminary study for his thesis under E.G.-R and N.O. direction, Federica Grandi for the preparation of the crucifixion drawing, Dr Marco Bertolini for figure editing and Dr. Francesco Boschin and Dr. Jacopo Crezzini for the image at the Hirox Digital Microscope KH-7700 (University of Siena, Department of Physical Sciences, Earth and Environment, Research Unit of Prehistory and Anthropology).

Funding

This work was supported by FAR grant from University of Ferrara as funding source.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biomedical and Specialty Surgical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121, Ferrara, Italy

    Emanuela Gualdi-Russo & Nicoletta Onisto

  2. Department of Human Studies, University of Ferrara, C.so Ercole I d’Este 32, 44121, Ferrara, Italy

    Ursula Thun Hohenstein

  3. Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50122, Florence, Italy

    Elena Pilli & David Caramelli

Authors
  1. Emanuela Gualdi-Russo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ursula Thun Hohenstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nicoletta Onisto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Elena Pilli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. David Caramelli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ursula Thun Hohenstein.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gualdi-Russo, E., Thun Hohenstein, U., Onisto, N. et al. A multidisciplinary study of calcaneal trauma in Roman Italy: a possible case of crucifixion?. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 11, 1783–1791 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0631-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0631-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation