1 Introduction

The Internet is often perceived as a technological innovation that causes a further widening of the gap between rich and poor; nevertheless, one of the most remarkable phenomena to come out of the Internet revolution is its utilization as a channel for social development (Amichai-Hamburger 2008). Having an online context is, therefore, full of pro-social promises (Wright and Li 2012), and as nonprofits face increasing challenges (such as resource scarcity) this can be an important resource for the involvement of volunteers and the creation of opportunities for participation through online volunteering (Pinho and Macedo 2006). Online or virtual volunteering is understood as a peculiar form of volunteering, whose great distinction is based on procedure, since it occurs partially or totally on the Internet. Existing studies on volunteering essentially look at involvement in offline volunteering, with few focusing online (Mukherjee 2011). This research seeks to bridge the gap in understanding the motivations of online volunteers and to see if the online context will occupy a particularly prominent place.

2 Literature review

2.1 Volunteering

There are several definitions of volunteering in the literature, although there is no consensus regarding it (Sampson 2006). However, consensual aspects include helping others and the expenditure of time without any expectation of remuneration. Snyder and Omoto (2008) summarize the essential characteristics of volunteering: (1) actions must be carried out by free will, without any bond of obligation or coercion; (2) deliberation or decision making is involved; (3) it takes place over a period of time (weeks, months or years); (4) the decision to volunteer is entirely based on the person’s own goals, with no monetary reward; (5) it involves serving persons or causes who desire/need help; (6) it can be simple acts of helping neighbors or volunteer work carried out within organizations (i.e. informal or formal aids).

When analyzing various definitions it is seen that some authors effectively restrict the phenomenon to actions performed without remuneration within an organization (Penner et al. 2005; Penner 2002) – as is the case of Penner (2002) who defines volunteering as long-term and planned pro-social behaviors that benefit others and often occur in an organizational environment. Other authors consider that it can be formal or informal (Lee and Brudney 2012; Medina 2011; Paço and Agostinho 2012; Parboteeah et al. 2004; Snyder and Omoto 2008). Formal volunteering is carried out in an organizational sphere, while informal volunteering is a result of pro-social behaviors carried out in our daily lives, outside an organizational framework (Ferreira et al. 2012; Lee and Brudney 2012; Parboteeah et al. 2004; United Nations Volunteers 2015). Informal volunteering is often performed within the communities where people live and work (United Nations Volunteers 2015) and includes behaviors such as helping neighbors or the elderly (Parboteeah et al. 2004).

As far as the frequency of realization is concerned, distinctions are also made. Clary et al. (1998), and later, Paço and Agostinho (2012) distinguish between permanent/regular and occasional volunteers. Regular volunteers are considered those who perform a volunteering activity at least once a month for a period of at least one year with a commitment to the organization, while occasional volunteers perform activities with lower regularity. That is, they collaborate during a shorter period of time with specific tasks (Delicado 2002; Paço and Agostinho 2012).

The empirical and conceptual analysis of volunteering can, according to Snyder and Omoto (2008), be portrayed with an explanatory model. This model has been the basis of empirical studies on volunteering and on pro-social behavior (Penner et al. 2005; Penner 2002) and portrays, as Table 1 shows, volunteering as a process with three sequential and interactive phases - Antecedents, Experiences and Consequences - at various levels of analysis - individual, interpersonal, organizational and cultural (Snyder and Omoto 2008).

Table 1 The Model of the volunteer process
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The present research focuses on the individual level of analysis and the three stages of the volunteering process: the antecedents, more precisely for understanding the motivations of the volunteers to engage in volunteering in an online context (Wright and Li 2012), but also on the perception of volunteers own experiences and consequences. With this approach, a greater understanding of the whole phenomenon becomes possible.

2.2 Online volunteering

2.2.1 Technologies in the Service of online volunteering

Technology is a necessary condition for the emergence of a new social organization network characterized by sociability, based in a virtual dimension, made possible by the new Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) transcending space time (Castells 2000) and disseminated through integrated power in the global networks of capital, goods, services, communication, information, science and technology. In this system, the Internet can be used by NPOs as a marketing and communication tool (Cravens 2000; Dhebar and Stokes 2008; Jaskyte 2012; Tuckman et al. 2004). Amichai-Hamburger (2008) seeks to demonstrate precisely these advantages in his study. In terms of information, he considers the availability of a variety of channels and the easy access and exchange of information allowing the creation of a collective database and, in communication terms, the greater interaction between volunteers and organizations and better monitoring and control of programs. Technology can be used as a means to obtain donations, but also for the management of resources and capacities more efficiently and effectively, and for the improvement of internal services and operations (Pinho and Macedo 2006). The use of ICT helps maximize potential in multiple areas, positioning NPOs to face contemporary challenges proactively (Jaskyte 2012). This type of organization must, like for-profit organizations, adapt to change and innovate (Gomes and Knowles 2001) to transcend a physical presence and to have a greater impact on society (Gomes and Knowles 2001; Tuckman et al. 2004).

As described in the United Nations Volunteers Program (United Nations Volunteers 2015) report on the status of volunteering in the world, volunteer networks began to use technology to build alliances that promote volunteering. Various studies have evidenced the increasing use of technology by profit companies. However, with regard to NPOs, adoption was considerably slower (Pinho and Macedo 2006) and relatively little attention has been paid to the effects of digitization upon the voluntary sector (Cox et al. 2018). In some cases, insufficient financial resources, lack of know-how and experience were common obstacles that led to a less positive attitude towards this tool (Walczuch et al. 2000). However, the heterogeneous and intangible nature of the services rendered by NPOs made the Internet a more attractive tool (Pinho and Macedo 2006) and, thus IT and ICT began to be considered an important vehicle for the involvement and creation of participation opportunities through online volunteering (Cravens 2000; Pinho and Macedo 2006), with online volunteering being a side effect of the currently unfolding predominant process of digitization (Ackermann and Manatschal 2018)

2.2.2 Types of online volunteering

In the literature, online volunteering is classified as formal and informal, the same as offline volunteering. Some research on online volunteering mention forms of formal online volunteering (Amichai-Hamburger 2008; Cravens 2000; Dhebar and Stokes 2008; Mukherjee 2011; United Nations Volunteers 2015; Wright and Li 2012) while others also refer to more informal forms (Reuter et al. 2013; Sproull 2011), although in smaller numbers. In the first case, formal online volunteering “allows anyone without leaving home or office to contribute time and experience to NPOs, schools, governmental agencies and other organizations that use volunteering services” (Cravens 2000, p. 211), and is based on the institutional aspect of online volunteering. In the second case of informal online volunteering, we find people offering advice and services, and there is no organization directly associated with the activities they develop (Cravens 2000).

Online volunteering services provides organizations and volunteers worldwide with a way to make virtual connections. An example of this is the United Nations Online Volunteer Program which, through its website, establishes a connection between development organizations and volunteers. The service provides online volunteering opportunities for organizations around the world to which volunteers can contribute with online skills in collaboration with their organizations. In 2009, it covered 1347 NPOs (government institutions, academic institutions and organizations of the United Nations) benefiting from the support of nearly 9500 people from 182 countries (UNV 2015). According to Dhebar and Stokes (2008, p.498), for an online volunteering program to succeed it needs “clearly defined objectives, clear and regular communications with volunteers, and a result monitoring process.” These aspects are similar to traditional management techniques, however, an adaptation to a virtual environment is required. In their study, these authors seek to develop advice to help volunteer managers expand or improve online volunteering programs, and say it is essential to: (1) plan clearly: clarity of objectives and expectations; (2) communicate: regular communication after recruitment and selection and (3) to supervise and learn from results.

There are several activities that can be considered as online volunteering. Various perspectives on how this kind of volunteering can be achieved have been specified in studies by several authors and may have different levels of virtuality (Cravens 2000). Cravens (2000, 2006) addresses the meaning of online volunteering work in NPOs. According to this author, volunteers can use the Internet and contribute to this type of organization by conducting online surveys (collecting data and information, for example, for writing newsletters, articles or news), online tutorials (interaction, orientation and virtual assistance), manage an online support line, answering questions, translations of materials into another language, collaboration with other volunteers in the creation of a project, contributing their professional experience in specific subjects (response to questions and help in areas such as human resources, accounting, management, marketing, among others) and contributing to the creation of newsletters, logotypes, databases and websites.

The analysis performed by Dhebar and Stokes (2008) shows that most online volunteering tasks are related to functional or operational activities (such as fundraising, communication and marketing), consulting and management advice, and mission-related program activities (such as research and editing). On the other hand, also from a purely formal perspective, the UNV (United Nations Volunteers 2015) considers that online volunteers can provide NPOs with technical support and resource management (such as volunteer management through the creation of databases), contribute to knowledge management (e.g. through the collection of information) and facilitate communication and networking (for example through the creation of newsletters, translations and moderation of online discussion groups). In a broader perspective, Sproull (2011) considers that volunteers can help others by donating funds to causes, by contributing to the development of open source software, by donating time and attention to organized groups on the Internet and discussion groups, and through information and emotional support in groups. In a slightly different perspective online volunteers can be considered as elements of crowdsourcing (Starbird and Palen 2011). Crowdsourcing involves the use of volunteers to achieve a goal or objective. Open source software is considered crowdsourcing applied to software development (Olson and Rosacker 2013). In this way, it is a process in which several individuals work together to perform tasks on a voluntary basis, and can be successful in many situations, especially in the management of disaster situations (Hossain and Kauranen 2015). One of the forms of crowdsourcing is the collective cooperation of people with the objective of raising money and other resources (Oomen and Aroyo 2011). Currently, civic crowdfunding is considered a subtype through which citizens raise funds to provide a service to the community (Stiver et al. 2015). Civic crowdfunding has great potential for facilitating networking and encouraging collaboration between citizens and the government. As a web-based process, it is shaped by online philanthropy and use of the Internet by NPOs (Waters 2007).

2.2.3 Potentials and limitations

Online volunteering has potential but also limitations for both volunteers and NPOs themselves. From a volunteer perspective, Amichai-Hamburger (2008) believes that volunteers have a greater opportunity to achieve self-realization at the top of the pyramid of Maslow’sFootnote 1 needs. This is considered important since allows the participation of people who are not able to volunteer offline due to a disability, obligation at home, difficulties in transportation or working hours (Cravens 2000; United Nations Volunteers 2015). Therefore, this type of volunteering becomes more attractive given the flexibility in location and time, especially for people who feel marginalized by society or have specific interests (Cravens 2000). Volunteers can search the Internet to find an online volunteering project that they consider relevant and become a part of, it becomes easier to get a role they want, and this provides an opportunity for the development of certain skills (Amichai-Hamburger 2008). On the other hand, from the point of view of NPOs online volunteers have great potential benefits (Moon and Sproull 2008) since they increase the diversity and openness of organizations, namely access to specialized skills that may not be available and, naturally, lower costs (Cravens 2006). In this way, online volunteers are a new resource for this type of organization.

Regarding their limitations, volunteers and organizations consider the lack of face-to-face contact as the greatest disadvantage (Cravens 2000). Online volunteering requires skills, especially in the use of ICT. Access to ICT is also a necessary condition and access is often determined by the digital divide (Amichai-Hamburger 2008), i.e., by inequality in terms of access to the Internet, particularly between developed and less developed countries, which is a limitation for the evolution and expansion of online volunteering. From the perspective of organizations, it is a great challenge for volunteer managers since the dynamics are different from the interactions existing in traditional volunteering. Cravens (2006) notes in his study that the biggest obstacle to organizational success is the lack of volunteer management resources. In this context, online volunteer managers must have the capabilities of an e-leader (distance leadership) (Amichai-Hamburger 2008). In particular, the lack of time for the program manager to manage the program and the lack of a system to create tasks and to combine volunteers with these tasks (Cravens 2000) can be a limitation. Another obstacle is that online volunteering tasks which do not require the physical presence of volunteers and can be carried out at a distance are often more expensive for NPOs, especially in less developed countries where they operate entirely on external donations (Mukherjee 2011). The cost of hardware, software and network connections, lack of computer skills, lack of adequate and continuous technical support and high turnover rates are obstacles to the development of online volunteering (Pinho and Macedo 2006).

2.3 Motivations of volunteering

Motivation is a complex psychological process that results from an interaction between the individual and the environment that surrounds him (Latham and Pinder 2005). The reasons why individuals become volunteers is a critical factor in volunteer activity (Paço and Agostinho 2012), since this can facilitate the structuring of roles in order to match these motivations (Burns et al. 2006). Therefore, motivations constitute a valuable component to be considered in an approach to volunteering (Clary and Snyder 1991). People engage in volunteer work for several different reasons (Finkelstien 2009) that result from complex interactions, particularly with the environment that surrounds them (Hustinx et al. 2010).

The theme of volunteer motivation has been the subject of various studies from which classifications of motivations have emerged (Antoni 2009; Clary et al. 1998; Ferreira et al. 2012; Paço and Agostinho 2012). Each likely motif comprises multiple dimensions and their fulfillment may satisfy both intrinsic and extrinsic needs (Finkelstien 2009). Intrinsic motivations are those that translate into an internal reward, such as the volunteer’s increased self-esteem, and extrinsic motivations translate into external benefits, such as the acquisition of new experiences (Meier and Stutzer 2004).

In their study on the Volunteer Function Inventory (VFI) Clary et al. (1998) identified six central motives for volunteering: values (the desire to express values related to altruistic and humanitarian concerns), social (strengthening social relations and/or obtaining approval by some of the community), understanding (desire to acquire new learning experiences and/or skills), career (obtaining career related experience and increasing employment prospects), protection (reducing negative feelings) and, finally, reinforcement (increased self-esteem and feeling useful).

The analyses done in different studies which focused on the motivations of volunteers show that some motivations are independent of a specific context of voluntary action (Ballard et al. 2015; Bussell and Forbes 2002; Carpenter and Myers 2007; Ferreira et al. 2012; Holdsworth 2010; Karr et al. 2006; Shye 2011; Stukas et al. 2016; Vázquez et al. 2015): altruistic motivations, social motivations associated with belonging and social recognition, ego and associated career motivations as well as learning and development.

2.4 Motivations in online volunteering

Taking into account that online volunteering is a recent area of study (Dhebar and Stokes 2008), and because has recently become more prevalent, previous research has not yet captured various contexts and motivations inherent to this activity (Ihm 2017). From an analysis of studies developed around the theme of online volunteering, it is possible to identify different types of motivations, among others: altruism, reciprocity, e-empowerment and/or self-actualization, social motivations, learning and freedom/flexibility.

Altruism, like in an offline context, is associated with the need to improve the well-being of another person (Wang and Wang 2008; Wright and Li 2012). As for reciprocity, it is associated with the need of volunteers to help each other in the hope that if or when they need help they will get it - the theory of social exchange (Wang and Wang 2008). On the other hand, volunteers can volunteer online through the need for empowerment, and in this case a new form of empowerment emerges - e-empowerment (Amichai-Hamburger et al. 2008). As already stated, the context of online volunteering is using the Internet. For this reason, it is possible for anyone to build their own identity in order to increase their self-esteem and achieve self-realization. The dynamic online environment allows greater control over interactions with others and consequently offers the possibility to shape one’s personality and create a new image of oneself. Anonymity favors expression without fear, especially without fear of negative judgments by others (Bandura 1990). Thus, online volunteers are judged based on their contribution to the interaction, community or project (Amichai-Hamburger et al. 2008). E-empowerment is thus considered a motivation intrinsically associated with the desire to create one’s own identity and self-expression (self-realization) (Amichai-Hamburger 2008; Amichai-Hamburger et al. 2008).

Social motivations, as in offline contexts, are associated with the desire to be part of a group (Amichai-Hamburger 2008; Mukherjee 2011; Wright and Li 2012). In addition, learning is a motivation associated with the need to develop skills and abilities. Finally, the need for freedom/flexibility is considered a motivation. Online volunteering provides greater flexibility with regard to cause selection and location (Mukherjee 2011). As already discussed, the Internet allows anyone to volunteer online, and people who are geographically distant, with less availability in terms of time and/or time or with limitations that stops them from leaving home are not a factor of exclusion. People framed in these circumstances can find an opportunity for online volunteering.

3 Empirical study

Although the general objective of this paper is to understand the process of online volunteering, it specifically seeks to answer three research questions: What are the motivations of individuals who engage in online volunteering? – in order to identify the reasons that lead an individual to donate time and work to online volunteering and to what extent these may be different from those described in the literature; What are the experiences of online volunteering? – to understand existing patterns of behavior, what kinds and how they are established (for example with other volunteers and recipients of the service) and, finally, What are the consequences of online volunteering? (Omoto and Snyder 2002) – which considers the benefits and obstacles associated with the intention to remain/abandon the activity.

3.1 Methodology

The use of semi-structured and open response interviews was chosen as the most appropriate research technique, since this qualitative method seeks to describe and understand central themes, and they are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences (Qu and Dumay 2011; Yin 2003), which is particular relevant for our topic. For the target audience, since the results are critically dependent on the appropriate selection of respondents, the interviews were directed to volunteers who now participate or have participated in online volunteering activities. The sample consisted mainly of female volunteers. Regarding age, the distribution was between 18 and 61 years, with the range between 24 and 32 having the highest number of interviewees. In terms of academic credentials, they had a high degree of qualification. Just one participant had only completed high school, sixteen held a bachelor’s degree, six had a master’s degree and one had doctorate. As for their professional situation, half of the interviewees worked for others. Of the remaining twelve, six of them were students, one a student-worker, three were self-employed, and two were unemployed. Finally, the nationality of the interviewees was diverse: seven were Portuguese, six Spanish, four English, one Japanese, one French, one Canadian and the other four did not provide corresponding information.

Seven semi-structured interviews were carried out in person or on Skype (given the impossibility of meeting face-to-face), with a maximum duration of fifty minutes. The interviewees were initially contacted via email and it was also through this means that the entire interview scheduling process proceeded. In addition to these interviews, two communities of online volunteers were contacted: Fundación CibervoluntariosFootnote 2 and Translations for Progress,Footnote 3 who affirmed their willingness to assist in the study. After sending the questions to a representative of the community, in English for Translations for Progress and in Spanish for Fundación Cibervoluntarios, these were given to the volunteers who gave their answers and returned them by email. Through these two communities it was possible to obtain responses from seventeen online volunteers who, together with the other interviews, make a total of twenty-four online volunteer participants in the study. The interviews were subsequently transcribed and translated. Given the request for anonymity no interviewees are identified.

3.1.1 Dimensions of analysis

Based on the literature review, a set of motivation factor areas for analysis was developed, as shown in Table 2. The open-ended questions allowed respondents to describe their personal experiences.

Table 2 Dimensions of analysis
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Regarding the online volunteer projects/organizations for which volunteers are or have already volunteered, we present Table 3 with a brief presentation of each of the online volunteering initiatives and the respective number of respondents involved.

Table 3 Projects/Organizations
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3.2 Data analysis

The interviews were transcribed and later treated according to the content analysis method. Three central and sequential phases were followed in this analysis: (1) the pre-analysis, where the first reading of the interviews already transcribed was carried out; (2) the exploitation of the material in which the messages are categorized and coded and (3) the treatment of the results and its interpretation. To assist this process, we used NVivo qualitative data analysis software, which proved to be extremely useful to facilitate the analysis of the interviews (Rowley 2012).

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Background to online volunteering

To understand the background of online volunteering [Table 4] a set of circumstances such as the awareness of opportunities through friends, the curiosity of individuals resulting from investigating related themes, and the relationship with their respective academic and/or professional training was considered important. In addition, in the specific situation of creating an online volunteering initiative, it has been shown to be essentially related to the social or citizenship awareness that triggers the entire project development process.

Table 4 Online Volunteer Background Testimonials
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Since this is a recent phenomenon, it is assumed that online volunteers have or have had offline volunteering involvement. The profile of “pure” online volunteers differs from the profile of “pure” offline volunteers, although the hybrid type combining online and offline volunteering attracts individuals resembling offline and online volunteers (Ackermann and Manatschal 2018). The research shows that there may actually be a connection with offline volunteering, however, it is noted that half of the respondents are dedicated exclusively to online volunteering. A distinguishing factor for preference of online volunteering [Table 5] is the flexibility provided and the lack of personal contact, in the sense that it allows volunteers to feel more comfortable in performing tasks. This conforms with the motives for online volunteering in the literature – “many people look for volunteering opportunities that they can complete from home or work because of limitations of time, personal preference, disability, or an obligation at home that prevents them of volunteering offline” (Cravens 2000, p 121).

Table 5 Testimonials of online volunteer preference regarding offline
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4.2 Motivations

Regarding motivations [Table 6], based on the results analysis, it was verified that altruistic motivations are one of the most frequently cited motivations and are intrinsically associated with the willingness shown by volunteers to perform online activities to help others (individuals or organizations). An individual always enters an activity with the idea that the result will be beneficial to others. So, it seems that appealing to the altruistic motivations of potential new volunteers may be an effective strategy to attract volunteers (Burns et al. 2006).

Table 6 Testimonials on Motivation
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The motivations involved with learning and the need to acquire skills and experience for a professional career are relevant and often decisive in becoming involved in online volunteering. In particular, in the case of volunteer translators it is their main motivation. Volunteers who intend to pursue a future professional activity in translation see online volunteering as an opportunity to acquire skills and experience in this area, which will be valuable when seeking a professional placement.

E-empowerment, or self-actualization is also a motivation. This impetus is associated with the opportunity offered by online volunteering to build a personal visual identity, which results in greater confidence in the performance of tasks. Volunteers can construct their own personality and convey only the characteristics they consider most relevant. In this way, they can create a new image of themselves which will contribute to increasing their confidence and self-esteem. In this form of volunteering the virtual surpasses the physical, and so the images that others create/have of the volunteers results from the interactions that occur online and their contributions to the project and/or community.

Social motivations, although less determinant, are also present. A justifying factor is the absence of face-to-face contact, making it difficult to create interpersonal relationships. We can see in the literature (Cox et al. 2018) that the most active and longer-serving participants are significantly less motivated by the possibility to socialize with other volunteers as compared with others. Despite this, in some cases it allows the development of activities together with people who have common interests.

In addition to the motivations previously described, a new motivation specific to the online context is noted: the freedom/flexibility it provides. Online volunteering allows for greater freedom with regard to cause selection and location (Mukherjee 2011). In this way, anyone can contribute to a cause and/or organization, regardless of the location or a condition that prevents him/her from leaving home. Thus, we can say that online volunteering attracts volunteers who may not have opportunities to participate in offline volunteering actions.

4.3 Experience

Regarding the experience of online volunteering, it has been shown that this can include various activities [Table 7]. Standard activities from the research include translations, assisting NPOs in developing better communications with the international community, writing, reviewing and editing articles (for example on topics related to programming), online surveys for information and data collection for articles or for NPO’s understanding of a specific subject, programming and software development to enable organizations and communities to prepare and more quickly respond to disasters, online training on a particular subject (for example the use of new technologies) available to the general public, the management of NPO’s social networks to support young people and the moderation of online behavior.

Table 7 Online volunteering formats
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Still regarding experience, it is pertinent to comprehend the relationship established with the organization [Table 8], namely how the communication, orientation and follow-up of volunteer activities are carried out. This research shows that there is usually an associated supervisor, however, the relationship with the organization itself is minimized, that is, generally the performance of activities does not require a direct relationship with the organization. In this form of volunteering, communication is carried out through Internet communication tools such as email, chat and Skype, predominately email. Through these means the volunteers receive support if necessary, or instructions for the performance of the activity. The e-leader, or person responsible for guiding and monitoring the work of online volunteers, is considered fundamental mainly at the start of the activity for instruction in the operation and mode of performing the activities, as well as at the end for the verification of the developed work. In this way, the volunteers essentially carry out activities in a self-regulated way, and the activities to be carried out do not require a great effort at the level of guidance and follow-up. As such, there was no evidence in the literature that online volunteering must have an online volunteer manager, nor that the supervisor’s lack of time to manage the program, as well as the absence of a system to create tasks and combine volunteers for these tasks may be a factor for failure (Cravens 2000).

Table 8 Testimonials of experience
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Table 9 Testimonials of consequences
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Regarding the duration of the activities, it was seen in the analysis of results that this could be of long or short duration. Thus, since the volunteers can be considered as permanent/regular and occasional (Paço and Agostinho 2012), the sample is considered to have both. Permanent/regular online volunteers can be considered as those who collaborate continuously with an organization or are responsible for creating a project/initiative to which they are linked, ensuring their development and maintenance over the years, as is the case of “Adoeci”, a free platform that promotes the union of people who have been diagnosed with the same pathology, and “Where?”, a site that gathers information about free volunteer opportunities or low cost work exchange, internships and temporary jobs around the world. In turn, occasional online volunteers can be considered those who do not continuously contribute to an organization but perform specific short-term tasks for various organizations, especially in specific projects as verified in this study in relation to Translations for Progress, a forum that mediates the relationship between NPOs who need translations and volunteer translators who want to contribute to a cause, thereby enabling volunteers to be aware of the needs of various partner organizations and various projects. Thus, volunteers can contribute to more than one project/NPO with their expertise [Tables 9 and 10].

Most of the volunteers are satisfied with the experience of volunteering and do not feel they lack guidance and monitoring in the performance of their duties. Satisfaction with the overall experience of volunteering is generally associated with reasons related to the motivations and correspond to the expectations created. Thus, volunteers’ satisfaction is related to the extent to which their expectations and motivations are met (Clary et al. 1998). However, in this research it was possible to identify some particular cases that had dissatisfaction associated with a low level of feedback on the part of the organization.

4.4 Consequences

The third and final research question focuses on understanding the outcomes of online volunteering. It was proven by the results analysis that the consequences essentially correspond to the realization of the initial motivations. Figure 1 summarizes the motivations and consequences of online volunteering, and shows that four motivations explain proportionate benefits: learning, often associated with career, e-empowerment or self-actualization, flexibility and social benefits.

Table 10 Testimonials in relation to the future of online volunteering
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Fig. 1
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Synthesis of motivations and consequences of online volunteering

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From the results presented, it was verified that the majority of volunteers seek to acquire skills and curriculum with the experience of volunteering. Actually, career progression can be identified as a very common pursued reward (Vázquez et al. 2015). In our research this is due to the fact that a high percentage of volunteers perform translation functions, as these volunteers seek to gain experience in order to carry on an associated professional activity in the future. Levels of self-realization increased from the sense of personal fulfillment in the performance of functions that contribute to the well-being of others. Freedom/flexibility, as already mentioned, allows activities to be carried out according to availability without geographical and/or temporal restrictions. In online volunteering it may be possible to create a long-term online relationship with volunteers or members of the organization with whom they collaborate with high frequency. It was proven by the results analysis that volunteers themselves consider the creation of interpersonal relationships as an unequaled consequence. In this case it has not been proven that the lack of face-to-face contact prevents the creation of interpersonal relationships.

Although many volunteers contribute to more than one organization in short periods of time, they do not show intentions of abandonment. It was noticed that the majority of the volunteers have an intention of permanence in the exercise of voluntary activities online. The reasons are mostly associated with the flexibility provided and the fondness for the activities performed, namely the feeling of usefulness for helping others or society in general.

4.5 Future of online volunteering

Lastly, regarding the future of online volunteering, it has been demonstrated that inequality of access to Internet or digital divide, as described by Amichai-Hamburger (2008), is a limitation that contributes negatively to the evolution of this type of volunteering. An additional limitation are egocentric societies highly focused on the individual “I” to the detriment of the “we”. On the other hand are the potentialities of the rapid expansion and evolution of ICT, as well as offering flexibility and allowing the creation of the volunteer’s own identity, also described by Amichai-Hamburger (2008) and Cravens (2000). In addition to these, contrary to the limitations of egocentric societies, the growing promotion of a culture of sharing is an opportunity for the expansion and evolution of online volunteering.

In relation to the current context and to adhesion, online voluntary work is still little known by the population in general. However, a tendency for growth is projected, derived from the associated potentialities of online volunteering, and we can point some examples to illustrate this latent development. Education represents one of the most powerful and consistent predictors of virtually all forms of volunteering, and for instance, individuals in their later life might value volunteering more because they realize that they are alone; at the same time, nowadays they are more digital literature, and so they can easily call upon online volunteering (Ackermann and Manatschal 2018). We can also mention some emerging pro-social behaviors of interest like community-building volunteering or the behavior of contributors to online resources such as Wikipedia, where individuals create value for others (Briggs et al. 2010).

5 Conclusion, limitations and suggestions for future lines of investigation

The present research focuses on online volunteering and makes a theoretical and empirical contribution to understanding the online volunteering process. Its theoretical and empirical contributions focus on deepening the three central research questions: What are the motivations of individuals who engage in online volunteering? What are the experiences of online volunteering? What are the consequences of online volunteering? This understanding was supported by the testimonies collected, based on the sharing of the volunteers’ personal online experiences. In this way it became possible to answer these three central questions. The results of the research both contribute to the reduction of a gap detected in the literature in relation to the phenomenon and provide support and understanding for the way in which NPOs can tap into this new resource.

The main conclusions lead to the consideration that altruistic motivations and learning/career are the most determinant factors for online volunteering. These activities encompass translation writing, reviewing and editing articles, online surveys, software development and programming, online training, social media management and online moderation. Regarding the intention of permanence, the satisfaction index associated with the experience and the initial motivations are shown to be decisive, and these motivations turn out to be benefits for online volunteering. The resulting consequences/benefits are essentially associated with the learning acquired, which volunteers expect to be valuable in the future, and the reward of self-realization, namely by increasing their self-esteem and by facilitating the creation of their virtual identity.

As shown in the literature review, this is still a recent phenomenon and so there are still few empirical studies centered on this theme. Thus, this research contributes both to the understanding of the whole process of online volunteering and to an increasing dissemination of the phenomenon and can serve as a basis for studying the subject in depth in future investigations. Despite its contributions, the present research has limitations that could translate into new studies. Throughout the research development it was noticed that there are motivations and benefits of online volunteering that are considered more relevant in relation to others, however, an order of importance has not been defined. In this way, it could be pertinent to explore this aspect in future research in order to perceive which motivations and benefits are more and less important for online volunteer involvement. Another limiting aspect is associated with the reduced number of people involved in this activity, particularly in the Portuguese national context. At the same time, since we used communities of online volunteers, we have excessive participants from the translation industry. In this sense, a greater scope of study and the use of online volunteers of other nationalities and other industries would be necessary. It would be interesting to carry out studies focusing on a single society, or a comparative study between societies in order to understand the divergences and similarities, namely at the level of openness to online volunteering. On the other hand, given that the sample includes volunteers of all age groups, it would be interesting, to conduct a youth-centered study to see if their connection to online contexts, results in greater involvement and knowledge of this activity.

The present study sought to understand the whole process of volunteering. However, studies focusing only on one part of the process may contribute to a greater depth of knowledge. Since the present research focuses on looking more closely at the online volunteering process from the perspective of the volunteer, it would also be important to see it from the side of the NPOs. Finally, it is understood that the study of online volunteering may still be the subject of new studies that will contribute to the development and production of new knowledge, not only theoretical, but essentially empirical. The present study offers a theoretical and empirical contribution to the theme, and it is expected to trigger interest for further investigations in this area.