Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Soil Health, Crop Productivity, Microbial Transport, and Mine Spoil Response to Biochars

  • Published:
BioEnergy Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Biochars vary widely in pH, surface area, nutrient concentration, porosity, and metal binding capacity due to the assortment of feedstock materials and thermal conversion conditions under which it is formed. The wide variety of chemical and physical characteristics have resulted in biochar being used as an amendment to rebuild soil health, improve crop yields, increase soil water storage, and restore soils/spoils impacted by mining. Meta-analysis of the biochar literature has shown mixed results when using biochar as a soil amendment to improve crop productivity. For example, in one meta-analysis, biochar increased crop yield by approximately 10 %, while in another, approximately 50 % of the studies reported minimal to no crop yield increases. In spite of the mixed crop yield reports, biochars have properties that can improve soil health characteristics, by increasing carbon (C) sequestration and nutrient and water retention. Biochars also have the ability to bind enteric microbes and enhance metal binding in soils impacted by mining. In this review, we present examples of both effective and ineffective uses of biochar to improve soil health for agricultural functions and reclamation of degraded mine spoils. Biochars are expensive to manufacture and cannot be purged from soil after application, so for efficient use, they should be targeted for specific uses in agricultural and environmental sectors. Thus, we introduce the designer biochar concept as an alternate paradigm stating that biochars should be designed with properties that are tailored to specific soil deficiencies or problems. We then demonstrate how careful selection of biochars can increase their effectiveness as a soil amendment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

C:

Carbon

N:

Nitrogen

SOC:

Soil organic carbon

USDA-ARS:

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service

US EPA:

United States Environmental Protection Agency

References

  1. Atkinson C, Fitzgerald J, Hipps N (2010) Potential mechanisms for achieving agricultural benefits from biochar application to temperate soils: a review. Plant Soil 337:1–18

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Jeffery S, Verheijen FGA, van der Velde M, Bastos AC (2011) A quantitative review of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using meta-analysis. Agric Ecosyst Environ 144:175–187

    Google Scholar 

  3. Biederman LA, Harpole WS (2013) Biochar and its effects on plant productivity and nutrient cycling: a meta-analysis. GCB Bioenergy 5:202–214

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Crane-Droesch A, Abiven S, Jeffery S, Torn MS (2013) Heterogeneous global crop yield responses to biochar: a meta-regression analysis. Environ Res Lett 8:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  5. Sigua GC, Novak JM, Watts JM, Johnson MG, Spokas K (2015) Efficacies of designer biochars in improving biomass and nutrient uptake of winter wheat grown in a hard setting subsoil layer. Chemosphere 142:176–183

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Lentz RD, Ippolito JA (2012) Biochar and manure affects calcareous soil and corn silage nutrient concentrations and uptake. J Environ Qual 41:1033–1043

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Spokas KA, Cantrell KB, Novak JM, Archer DW, Ippolito JA, Collins AA, Boateng K, Lima IM, Lamb MC, McAloon AJ, Lentz RD, Nichols KA (2012) Biochar: a synthesis of its agronomic impact beyond carbon sequestration. J Environ Qual 41:973–989

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Novak JM, Spokas KA, Cantrell KB, Ro KS, Watts DW, Glaz B, Busscher WJ, Hunt PG (2014) Effects of biochar and hydrochars produced from lignocellulosic and animal manure on fertility of a Mollisol and Entisol. Soil Use Manag 30:175–181

    Google Scholar 

  9. Abit SM, Bolster CH, Cai P, Walker SL (2012) Influence of feedstock and pyrolysis temperature of biochar amendments on transport of Escherichia coli in saturated and unsaturated soil. Environ Sci Technol 46:8097–8105

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Bolster CH, Abit SM (2012) Biochar pyrolyzed at two temperatures affects Escherichia coli transport through sandy soil. J Environ Qual 41:124–133

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Beesley L, Moreno-Jiménez E, Gomez-Eyles JL, Harris E, Robinson B, Sizmur T (2011) A review of biochars potential in the remediation, revegetation and restoration of contaminated soils. Environ Pollut 159:3269–3282

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Tang J, Zhu W, Kookana R, Katayama A (2013) Characteristics of biochar and its application in remediation of contaminated soil. J Biosci Bioeng 116:653–659

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Novak JM, Ro K, Ok YS, Sigua G, Spokas K, Uchimiya S, Bolan N (2016) Biochars multifunctional role as a novel technology in the agricultural, environmental, and industrial sectors. Chemosphere 142:1–3

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Antal MJ, Grønli (2003) The art, science, and technology of charcoal production. Ind Eng Chem Res 42:1619–1640

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Amonette JE, Joseph S (2009) Characteristics of biochar: macro-chemical properties. In: Lehmann JL, Joseph S (eds) Biochar for environmental management. Earthscan, London, pp 56–71

    Google Scholar 

  16. Deenik JL, McClellan T, Uehara G, Antal M, Campbell S (2010) charcoal volatile matter content influences plant growth and soil nitrogen transformations. Soil Sci Soc Am J 74:1259–1269

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Kleber M, Hockaday W, Nico PS (2015) Characteristics of biochar: physical and structural properties. In: Lehmann JL, Joseph S (eds) Biochar for environmental management: science, technology and implementation, 2nd edn. Earthscan, London, pp 111–138

    Google Scholar 

  18. Keiluweit M, Nico PS, Johnson M, Kleber M (2010) Dynamic molecular structure of plant biomass-derived black carbon (biochar). Environ Sci Technol 44:1247–1253

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Ippolito JA, Spokas KS, Novak JM, Lentz RD, Cantrell KB (2015) Biochar elemental composition and factors influencing nutrient retention. In: Lehmann J, Joseph (eds) Biochar for environmental management: science, technology, and implementation, 2nd edn. Routledge, New York, pp 137–161

    Google Scholar 

  20. Lehmann J, Abiven S, Kleber M, Pan G, Singh BP, Sohi SP, Zimmerman AR (2015) Persistence of biochar in soil. In: Lehmann JL, Joseph S (eds) Biochar for environmental management: science, technology and implementation, 2nd edn. Earthscan, London, pp 235–282

    Google Scholar 

  21. Lehmann J, Czimczik C, Laird D, Sohi S (2009) Stability of biochar in soils. In: Lehmann JL, Joseph S (eds) Biochar for environmental management: science, technology and implementation, 2nd edn. Earthscan, London, pp 183–206

    Google Scholar 

  22. Zimmerman AR (2010) Abiotic and microbial oxidation of laboratory-produced black carbon (biochar). Environ Sci Technol 44:1295–1301

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Cheng CH, Lehmann J, Theis JE, Burton SD, Englehard MH (2006) Oxidation of black carbon by biotic and abiotic processes. Org Geochem 37:1477–1488

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Spokas KA, Novak JM, Masiello CA, Johnson MG, Colosky EC, Ippolito JA (2015) Physical disintegration of biochar: an overlooked process. Environ Sci Technol Lett 1:326–332

    Google Scholar 

  25. Novak JM, Cantrell KB, Watts DW (2013) Compositional and thermal evaluation of lignocellulosic and poultry litter chars via high and low temperature pyrolysis. Bioenergy Res 6:114–130

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Chan KY, Van Zwieten L, Meszaros I, Downie A, Joseph S (2008) Using poultry liter biochars as soil amendments. Aust J Soil Res 46:437–444

    Google Scholar 

  27. Novak JM, Lima I, Xing B, Gaskin JW, Steiner C, Das KC, Ahmedna M, Rehrah R, Watts DW, Busscher WJ, Schomberg (2009) Characterization of designer biochars produced at different temperatures and their effects on a loamy sand. Ann Environ Sci 3:195–206

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Singh B, Singh BP, Cowie AL (2010) Characterization and evaluation of biochars for their application as a soil amendment. Aust J Soil Res 48:516–525

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Yuan JH, Xu RK, Wang N, Li JY (2011) Amendments of acid soils with crop residues and biochars. Pedosphere 21:320–308

    Google Scholar 

  30. Novak JM, Busscher WJ (2012) Selection and use of designer biochars to improve characteristics of southeastern USA Coastal Plain degraded soils. In: Lee JW (ed) Advanced biofuels and bioproducts. Springer Science, New York, pp 69–97

    Google Scholar 

  31. Rehrah D, Reddy MR, Novak JM, Bansode RR, Schimmel KA, Yu J, Watts DW, Ahmedna M (2014) Production and characterization of biochars from agricultural by-products for use in soil quality enhancement. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 108:301–309

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Sigua GC, Stone KC, Hunt PG, Cantrell KB, Novak JM (2015) Increasing biomass of winter wheat using sorghum biochars. Agron Sustain Dev 35:739–748

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Liu X, Zhang A, Ji C, Joseph S, Bian R, Li L, Pan G, Paz-Ferreiro J (2013) Biochar’s effect on crop productivity and the dependence on experimental conditions—a meta-analysis of literature data. Plant Soil 373:583–594

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Uzoma KC, Inoue M, Andry H, Fujimaki H, Zahoor A, Nishihara E (2011) Effect of cow manure biochar on maize productivity under sandy soil conditions. Soil Use Manag 27:205–212

    Google Scholar 

  35. Borchard N, Siemens J, Ladd B, Moeller A, Amerlung W (2014) Application of biochars to sandy and silty soil failed to increase maize yield under common agricultural practice. Soil Tillage Res 144:184–194

    Google Scholar 

  36. Gaskin JW, Speir RA, Harris K, Das KC, Lee RD, Morris LA, Fisher DS (2010) Effect of peanut hull and pine chip biochar on soil nutrients, corn nutrient status, and yield. Agron J 102:623–633

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Van Zwieten L, Kimber S, Morris S, Chan KY, Downie A, Rust J, Joseph S, Cowie A (2010) Effects of biochar from slow pyrolysis of papermill waste on agronomic performance and soil fertility. Plant Soil 327:235–246

    Google Scholar 

  38. Martinsen V, Mulder J, Shitumbanuma V, Sparrevik M, Borresen T, Cornelissen G (2015) Farmer-led maize biochar trials: effect on crop yield and soil nutrients under conservation farming. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 177:1–15

    Google Scholar 

  39. Jones D, Rousk J, Edward-Jones G, DeLuca T, Murphy D (2011) Biochar-mediated changes in soil quality and plant growth in a three year field trail. Soil Biol Biochem 45:113–124

    Google Scholar 

  40. Grundale M, Deluca T (2007) Charcoal effects on soil solution chemistry and growth of Koeleria macrantha in the Ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir ecosystem. Biol Fertil Soils 43:303–311

    Google Scholar 

  41. Taylor SA, Ashcroft GL (1972) Physical edaphology—the physics of irrigated and nonirrigated soils. WH Freeman and Company, San Francisco

    Google Scholar 

  42. Alexander M (1977) Introduction to soil microbiology, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  43. Troeh FR, Thompson LM (2005) Soils and soil fertility, 6th edn. Blackwell Publisher, Victoria

    Google Scholar 

  44. Walden J (1860) Soil culture: containing a comprehensive view of agriculture. Horticulture, pomology, domestic animals, rural economy, and agricultural literature. CM Saxton, Barker and Co, New York

  45. Tyron EH (1948) Effects of charcoal on certain physical, chemical and biological properties of forest soils. Ecol Monogr 18:81–115

    Google Scholar 

  46. Glaser B, Lehmann J, Zech W (2002) Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal—a review. Biol Fertil Soils 35:219–230

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Laird D, Fleming P, Davis DD, Horton R, Wang B, Karlen DL (2010) Impact of biochar amendments on the quality of a tropical Midwestern agricultural soil. Geoderma 158:443–449

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Novak JM, Busscher WJ, Watts DW, Amonette JE, Ippolito JA, Lima IM, Gaskin J, Das KC, Steiner C, Ahmedna M, Rehrah D, Schomberg H (2012) Biochars impact on soil-moisture storage in an Ultisol and two Aridisol. Soil Sci 177:310–320

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Basso A, Miguez FE, Laird DA, Horton R, Westgate M (2013) Assessing potential of biochar for increasing water-holding capacity of sandy soils. GCB Bioenergy 5:132–143

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Mollinedo J, Schumacher TE, Chintala R (2015) Influence of feedstock and pyrolysis on biochars capacity to modify soil water retention characteristics. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 114:100–108

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Asai H, Samson BK, Stephan HM, Songyikhangsuthor K, Homma K (2009) Biochar amendment techniques for upland rice production in Northern Laos. I. Soil physical properties, leaf SPAD and grain yield. Field Crop Res 111:81–84

    Google Scholar 

  52. Uzoma KC, Inoue M, Andry H, Zahoor A, Nishihare E (2011) influence of biochar application on sandy soil hydraulic properties and nutrient retention. J Food Agric Environ 9:1137–1143

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Ouyang L, Wang F, Tang J, Yu L, Zhang R (2013) Effects of biochar amendment on soil aggregates and hydraulic properties. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 13:991–1002

    Google Scholar 

  54. Barnes RT, Gallagher ME, Masiello CA, Liu Z, Dugan B (2014) Biochar-induced changes in soil hydraulic conductivity and dissolved nutrient fluxes constrained by laboratory experiments. Plos One 9:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  55. Major J, Rondon M, Molina D, Rhia SJ, Lehmann J (2012) Nutrient leaching in a Columbian savanna oxisol amended with biochar. J Environ Qual 41:1076–1086

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Lim TJ, Spokas KA, Feyereisen G, Novak JM (2016) Predicting the impact of biochar additions on soil hydraulic properties. Chemosphere 142:136–144

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Novak J, Sigua G, Watts D, Cantrell K, Shumaker P, Szogi A, Johnson MG (2016) Biochars impact on water infiltration and water quality through a compacted subsoil layer. Chemosphere 142:160–167

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Masiello CM, Dugan B, Brewer C, Spokas KA, Novak JM, Liu Z, Sorrenti G (2015) Biochar effects on soil hydrology. In: Lehmann J, Joseph J (eds) Biochar for environmental management, 2nd edn. Earthscan, Routledge

    Google Scholar 

  59. Hillel D (1998) Environmental soil physics: fundamentals, applications and environmental considerations. Academic press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  60. Groenevelt P, Grant CD, Semetsa S (2001) A new procedure to determine soil water availability. Aust J Soil Res 39:577–598

    Google Scholar 

  61. Minasny B, McBrantney AB (2003) Integral energy as a measure of soil-water availability. Plant Soil 249:253–262

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. de Lima R, da Silva A, Leao T, Mosaddeghi B (2016) Soil physics: an R package for calculating soil water availability to plants by different soil physical indices. Comput Electron Agric 120:63–71

    Google Scholar 

  63. Unc A, Goss MJ (2004) Transport of bacteria from manure and protection of water resources. Appl Soil Ecol 25:1–18

    Google Scholar 

  64. Gerba CP, Smith JE (2005) Sources of pathogenic microorganisms and their fate during land-application of wastes. J Environ Qual 34:42–48

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Abit SM, Bolster CH, Cantrell KB, Flores JQ, Walker SL (2014) Transport of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and microspheres in biochar-amended soils with different textures. J Environ Qual 43:371–378

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Mittal AK (2011) Abandoned mines: information on the number of hardrock mines, cost of clean up, and value of financial assurances (testimony before the subcommittee on energy and mineral resources, Committee on Natural Resources, House of Representatives No. GAO-11-834T). United States Accountability Office, available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11834t.pdf

  67. Fellet G, Marchiol L, Delle Vedove G, Peressotti A (2011) Application of biochar on mine tailings: effects and perspectives for land reclamation. Chemosphere 83:1262–1267

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Anawar HM, Akter F, Solaiman ZM, Strezov V (2015) Biochar: an emerging panacea for remediation of soil contaminants from mining, industry and sewage wastes. Pedosphere 25:654–665

    Google Scholar 

  69. Janus A, Pelfrêne A, Heymans S, Deboffe C, Douay F, Waterlot C (2015) Elaboration, characteristics and advantages of biochar for the management of contaminated soils with a specific overview on Miscanthus biochars. J Environ Manag 162:275–289

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Gwenzi W, Chaukura N, Mukome F, Machado S, Nyamasoka (2015) Biochar production and applications in Sub-Saharan Africa: opportunities, constraints, risks, and uncertainties. J Environ Manag 150:250–261

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Jain S, Baruah BP, Khare (2014) Kinetic leaching of high sulphur mine rejects amended with biochar: buffering implications. Ecol Eng 71:703–709

    Google Scholar 

  72. Wiedner K, Rumpel C, Steiner C, Pozzi A, Maas R, Glaser B (2013) Chemical evaluation of char’s produced by thermochemical conversion (gasification, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal carbonization) of agro-industrial biomass on a commercial scale. Biomass Bioenergy 59:264–278

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Uchimya M, Lima IM, Klasson KT, Wartelle LH (2010) Contaminant immobilization and nutrient release by biochar soil amendments: role of natural organic matter. Chemosphere 80:935–940

    Google Scholar 

  74. Uchimya M, Wartelle LH, Klasson KT, Fortier CA, Lima IM (2011) Influence of pyrolysis temperature on biochar property and function as a heavy metal sorbent in soil. J Agric Food Chem 59:2501–2510

    Google Scholar 

  75. Ippolito JA, Novak JM, Strawn DG, Scheckel KG, Ahmedna M, Niandou MAS (2012) Macroscopic and molecular approaches of copper sorption by a steam activated biochar. J Environ Qual 41:1150–1156

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Uchimiya M, Orlov A, Ramakrishnan G, Sistani K (2013) In situ and ex situ spectroscopic monitoring of biochar’s surface functional groups. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 102:53–59

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Scheckel KG, Diamond GL, Burgess MF, Klotzhbach JM, Maddaloni M, Miller BW, Partridge CR, Serda SM (2013) Amending soils with phosphate as means to mitigate soil lead hazard: a critical review of the stage of the science. J Tox Environ Health, Part B 16:337–380

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Leehmann J (2007) Bio-energy in the black. Front Ecol Environ 5:381–387

    Google Scholar 

  79. Ippolito JA, Laird DA Busscher WJ (2012) Environmental benefits of biochar. J Environ Qual 41:967–972

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Novak JM, Cantrell KB, Watts DW, Busscher WJ, Johnson MG (2014) Designing relevant biochars as soil amendments using lignocellulosic-based and manure-based feedstocks. J Soil Sediments 14:330–343

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Scott HL, Ponsonby D, Atkinson CJ (2014) Biochar: an improver of nutrient and soil water availability—what is the evidence. CAB Rev 9:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  82. Ippolito JA, Ducey TF, Cantrell KB, Novak JM, Lentz RD (2016) Designer, acidic biochar influences calcareous soil characteristics. Chemosphere 142:184–191

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Sohi S, McDonagh, Novak JM, Wu W, Miu LM (2015) Biochar systems and system fit. In: Lehmann J, Joseph J (eds) Biochar for environmental management, 2nd edn. Earthscan, Routledge

    Google Scholar 

  84. Joseph S, Van Zwieten L, Chia C, Kimber S, Munroe P, Lin Y, Marjo C, Hook J, Thomas T, Nielsen S, Donne S, Taylor P (2013) Designing specific biochars to address soil constraints: a developing industry. In: Ladygina N, Rineau F (eds) Biochar and Soil Biota. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 165–202

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Sincere gratitude is expressed to the support staff at involved ARS and United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) locations whose hard work made this research article possible. Parts of the information in this article have been funded through an Interagency Agreement between the United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (60-6657-1-024) and the US EPA (DE-12-92342301-1). It has been subject to review by scientists of the United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) at multiple locations and by the National Health and Environment Effects Research Laboratory’s Western Ecology Division and approved for journal submission. Approval does not signify that the contents reflect the views of the USDA-ARS or the US EPA, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for their use.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)-Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Coastal Plain Research Center, Florence, SC, 29501, USA

    J. M. Novak

  2. USDA-ARS, Northwest Irrigation and Soils Research Laboratory, Kimberly, ID, 83341, USA

    J. A. Ippolito & R. D. Lentz

  3. USDA-ARS, Soil and Water Management Research Unit, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA

    K. A. Spokas

  4. USDA-ARS, Food Animal Environmental Systems Research Unit, Bowling Green, KY, 42101, USA

    C. H. Bolster & K. Sistani

  5. USDA-ARS, Forage Seed and Cereal Research Unit, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA

    K. M. Trippe & C. L. Phillips

  6. National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR, 97333, USA

    M. G. Johnson

Authors
  1. J. M. Novak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. A. Ippolito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. R. D. Lentz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. K. A. Spokas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. C. H. Bolster
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. K. Sistani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. K. M. Trippe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. C. L. Phillips
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. M. G. Johnson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. M. Novak.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Novak, J.M., Ippolito, J.A., Lentz, R.D. et al. Soil Health, Crop Productivity, Microbial Transport, and Mine Spoil Response to Biochars. Bioenerg. Res. 9, 454–464 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-016-9720-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-016-9720-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation