Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Reaching Out versus Lashing Out: Examining Gender Differences in Experiences with and Responses to Bullying in High School

  • Published:
American Journal of Criminal Justice Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study examines gender differences in bullying in high school. Unique contributions include comparisons of both victimization and perpetration rates across four subtypes of bullying: physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. Further, as we conceptualize bullying within the larger framework of literature on social rejection, we also address whether there are gender differences in experiencing social rejection–in the form of bullying–and responding with aggression, as opposed to asocial or prosocial behavior. The literature yields mixed findings across these three questions (i.e., gender differences in experiences with victimization and perpetration and responses to those experiences), suggesting sample variations (Archer Review of General Psychology, 8(4), 291–322, 2004; Archer & Coyne Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 212–230, 2005; Card, Stucky, Sawalani, & Little Child Development, 79, 1185–1229, 2008). Thus, we explored experiential differences in our sample, and hypothesized based on the tend and befriend model (Taylor et al., 2000) that girls would be more likely than boys to respond to bullying with prosocial behaviors. With regard to victimization and perpetration differences, we found that male students both experienced and perpetrated significantly more physical bullying. Boys were also significantly more likely to report experiencing verbal bullying than girls. No significant differences emerged for relational or cyber bullying. With regard to responses, social withdrawal was more common than aggressive responding, but consistent with the tend and befriend model, girls chose prosocial responses significantly more than boys, whereas boys were just as likely to choose antisocial responding as prosocial responding. These results suggest that gender should be considered in studies addressing the question of when experiences with rejection–in its many forms–results in antisocial versus prosocial behavior.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agresti, A. (1996). An introduction to categorical data analysis (Vol. 135). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anthony, D. B., Holmes, J. G., & Wood, J. V. (2007). Social acceptance and self-esteem: Tuning the sociometer to interpersonal value. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1024–1039. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8(4), 291–322. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J., & Coyne, S. M. (2005). An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 212–230. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barford, K. A., Pope, J. B., Harlow, T. F., & Hudson, E. P. (2014). Predicting empathy and prosocial behavior: Who cares and when? Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 19, 202–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beyond Bullies. (2016). #Beyond bullies stand up campaign. http://beyondbullies.org/take-action-now/sticker-campaign/

  • Björkqvist, K. (1994). Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles, 30, 177–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992). The development of direct and indirect aggressive strategies in males and females. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.), Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression (pp. 51–64). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Blackhart, G. C., Baumeister, R. F., & Twenge, J. M. (2006). Rejection’s impact on self- defeating, prosocial, antisocial, and self-regulatory behaviors. In K. D. Vohs & E. J. Finkel (Eds.), Self and relationships: Connecting intrapersonal and interpersonal processes (pp. 237–253). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boiling, D. Z., Pelphrey, K. A., & Vander Wyk, B. C. (2016). Unlike adults, children and adolescents show predominantly increased neural activation to social exclusion by members of the opposite gender. Social Neuroscience, 11, 475–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borum, R., Cornell, D. G., Modzeleski, W., & Jimerson, S. R. (2010). What can be done about school shootings? A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27–37. doi:10.3102/0013189X09357620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M. J., Bucci, E., & Hawker, D. D. S. (1999). Swedish and English secondary school pupils' attitudes towards, and conceptions of, bullying: Concurrent links with bully/victim involvement. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 40(4), 277–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M. J., Trueman, M., & Murray, L. (2008). Associations between peer victimization, fear of future victimization and disrupted concentration on class work among junior school pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 473–489. doi:10.1348/000709908X320471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. P., Osterman, L. L., & Barnes, C. D. (2009). School violence and the culture of honor. Psychological Science, 20, 1400–1405. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02456.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, R., & Crawford, C. (1999). School shootings, the media, and public fear: Ingredients for a moral panic. Crime, Law and Social Change, 32(2), 147–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185–1229. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castillo, R., Salguero, J. M., Fernandez-Berrocal, P., & Balluerka, M. (2013). Effects of an emotional intelligence intervention on aggression and empathy among adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 883–892.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children’s future social adjustment. Child Development, 67, 2317–2327. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.ep9706060169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1997). Engagement in gender normative versus nonnormative forms of aggression: Links to social-psychological adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 33, 610–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.ep9506152720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cyber Mentors. (2016). Cyberbullying. http://cybermentors.org.uk/?s=cyberbullying

  • Donoghue, C., & Raia-Hawrylak, A. (2016). Moving beyond the emphasis on bullying: A generalized approach to peer aggression in high school. Children and Schools, 38, 30–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, D. P., & Ttofi, M. M. (2011). Bullying as a predictor of offending, violence and later life outcomes. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 21, 90–98. doi:10.1002/cbm.801.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feng, C., Lori, A., Waldman, I. D., Binder, E. B., Haroon, E., & Rilling, J. K. (2015). A common oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) polymorphism modulates intranasal oxytocin effects on the neural response to social cooperation in humans. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 14, 516–525. doi:10.1111/gbb.12234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, R. M., Smith-Adcock, S., & Dixon, A. L. (2011). The influence of mass media on relational aggression among females: A feminist counseling perspective. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 20, 376–394. doi:10.1080/10926771.2011.568995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, S. E., Young, A., & Boyd, C. (2008). Relational aggression at school: Associations with school safety and social climate. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 641–654. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9192-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, T., & Ickes, W. (1997). When women’s intuition isn’t greater than men’s. In W. Ickes (Ed.), Empathic accuracy (pp. 117–143). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grotpeter, J. K., & Crick, N. R. (1996). Relational aggression, overt aggression, and friendship. Child Development, 67, 2328–2338. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.ep9706060170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamburger, M. E., Basile, K. C., & Vivolo, A. M. (2011). Measuring bullying victimization perpetration, and bystander experiences: A compendium of assessment tools. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. J. (2009). Taking bullying and rejection (inter)personally: Benefits of a social psychological approach to peer victimization. In M. J. Harris (Ed.), Bullying, rejection, and peer victimization: A social cognitive neuroscience perspective (pp. 3–24). New York: Springer Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, C. H., Nelson, D. A., Robinson, C. C., Olsen, S. F., & McNeilly-Choque, M. K. (1998). Overt and relational aggression in Russian nursery-school-age children: Parenting style and marital linkages. Developmental Psychology, 34(4), 687–697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawker, D. S. J., & Boulton, M. J. (2000). Twenty years' research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 441–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2008). Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29(2), 129–156. doi:10.1080/01639620701457816.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (1999). Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(4), 677–685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hollander, J. A. (2013). “I demand more of people”: Accountability, interaction, and gender change. Gender & Society, 27(1), 5–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson, M., Wilkes, L., Vickers, M., & Jackson, D. (2008). The development and validation of a bullying inventory for the nursing workplace. Nurse Researcher, 15(2), 19–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • I Witness Bullying. (2016). #I am a witness. http://iwitnessbullying.org/

  • Iffland, B., Sansen, L. M., Catani, C., & Neuner, F. (2014). Rapid heartbeat, but dry palms: Reactions of heart rate and skin conductance levels to social rejection. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 956. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00956.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalish, R., & Kimmel, M. (2010). Suicide by mass murder: Masculinity, aggrieved entitlement, and rampage school shootings. Health Sociology Review, 19(4), 451–464. doi:10.5172/hesr.2010.19.4.451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, E. V., Newton, N. C., Stapinski, L. A., Slade, T., Barrett, E. L., Conrod, P. J., & Teeson, M. (2015). Suicidality, internalizing problems, and externalizing problems among adolescent bullies, victims, and bully-victims. Preventive Medicine: An international journal devoted to practice and theory, 73, 100–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimmel, M. S., & Mahler, M. (2003). Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence random school shootings, 1982-2001. American Behavioral Scientist, 46(10), 1439–1458. doi:10.1177/0002764203046010010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klages, S. V., & Wirth, J. H. (2014). Excluded by laughter: Laughing until it hurts someone else. Journal of Social Psychology, 154, 8–13. doi:10.1080/00224545.2013.843502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, J. (2005). Teaching her a lesson: Media misses boys’ rage relating to girls in school shootings. Crime, Media, Culture, 1, 90–97. doi:10.1177/1741659005050245.

  • Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S22–S30. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kupersmidt, J. B., Burchinal, M., & Patterson, C. J. (1995). Developmental patterns of childhood peer relations as predictors of externalizing behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 825–843.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lapidot-Lefler, N., & Dolev-Cohen, M. (2015). Comparing cyberbullying and school bullying among school students: Prevalence, gender, and grade level differences. Social Psychology of Education, 18, 1–16. doi:10.1007/s11218-014-9280-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laurent, S. M., & Hodges, S. D. (2009). Gender roles and empathic accuracy: The role of communion in reading minds. Sex Roles, 60, 387–398. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9544-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leadbetter, B., Woods, T., Yeung, R., Riel, K., & Lynch, R. A. (2011). Using your WITS to prevent peer victimization: A resource guide to the WITS primary and WITS LEADS programs (2nd ed.). Victoria: University of Victoria and Rock Solid Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Koch, E., & Hechenbleikner, N. (2001). Emotional responses to interpersonal rejection. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 146–166). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, rejection, and violence: Case studies of the school shootings. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 202–214. doi:10.1002/ab.10061.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Leder, S. (2009). The nature of hurt feelings: Emotional experience and cognitive appraisals. In A. Vangelisti (Ed.), Feeling hurt in close relationships (pp. 15–33). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J., & Harley, V. R. (2012). The male fight-flight response: A result of SRY regulation of catecholamines? BioEssays, 34, 454–457. doi:10.1002/bies.201100159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leff, S. S., Waasdorp, T. E., Paskewich, B., Gullan, R. L., Jawad, A. F., MacEvoy, J. P., Feinberg, B. E., & Power, T. J. (2010). The preventing relational aggression in schools everyday program: A preliminary evaluation of acceptability and impact. School Psychology Review, 39, 569–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, Q. (2006). Cyberbullying in schools: A research of gender differences. School Psychology International, 27, 157–170. doi:10.1177/0143034306064547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loflin, D. C., & Barry, C. T. (2016). You can’t sit with us: Gender and the differential roles of social intelligence and peer status in adolescent relational aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 91, 22–26. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.048.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, G., & Jensen-Campbell, L. A. (2011). Social pain: Neuropsychology and health implications of loss and exclusion. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Macgowan, M. J., Nash, J. K., & Fraser, M. W. (2002). The Carolina child checklist of risk and protective factors for aggression. Research on Social Work Practice, 12(2), 253–276. doi:10.1177/104973150201200204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marcum, C. D., Higgins, G. E., Freiburger, T. L., & Ricketts, M. L. (2012). Battle of the sexes: An examination of male and female cyber bullying. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 6(1), 904–911.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcum, C. D., Ricketts, M. L., & Higgins, G. E. (2010). Assessing sex experiences of online victimization: An examination of adolescent online behaviors utilizing routine activity theory. Criminal Justice Review, 35(4), 412–437. doi:10.1177/0734016809360331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, R. J., & Frick, P. J. (2009). Conduct and oppositional disorders. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Assessment of childhood disorders (4th ed., pp. 132–183). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McQuaid, R. J., McInnis, O. A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2015). Distress of ostracism: Oxytocin receptor gene polymorphism confers sensitivity to social exclusion. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10, 1153–1159. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menesini, E., Codecasa, E., Benelli, B., & Cowie, H. (2003). Enhancing children's responsibility to take action against bullying: Evaluation of a befriending intervention in Italian middle schools. Aggressive Behavior, 29(1), 1–14. doi:10.1002/ab.80012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muschert, G. W. (2009). Frame-changing in the media coverage of a school shooting: The rise of columbine as a national concern. Social Science Journal, 46(1), 164–170. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2008.12.014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Campaign for Public School Improvement. (2016). Project Appleseed. http://www.projectappleseed.org/secret-service-safe-school-initiative

  • National Education Association. (2015). NEA’s bully free: It starts with me. http://www.nea.org/home/neabullyfree.html

  • Newman, M. L. (2014). Here we go again: Bullying history and cardiovascular responses to social exclusion. Physiology and Behavior, 133, 76–80. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.05.014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nishina, K., Takagishi, H., Inoue-Murayama, M., Takahashi, H., & Yamagashi, T. (2015). Polymorphism of the oxytocin receptor gene modulates behavioral and attitudinal trust among men but not women. PloS One, 10(10), 1–11. doi:10.1037/journal.pone.0137089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1991). Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: Basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 411–448). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Ophelia Project. (2013). Creating a safe school. http://www.opheliaproject.org/cass/ProgramManager.pdf

  • Orpinas, P., McNicholas, C., & Nahapetyan, L. (2015). Gender differences in trajectories of relational aggression perpetration and victimization from middle to high school. Aggressive Behavior, 41, 401–412. doi:10.1002/ab.21563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owens, L., Slee, P., & Shute, R. (2000). ‘It hurts a hell of a lot...’ The effects of indirect aggression on teenage girls. School Psychology International, 21(4), 359–376. doi:10.1177/0143034300214002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paley, V. G. (1993). You can’t say you can’t play. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reijntjes, A., Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Boelen, P. A., de Castro, B. O., & Telch, M. J. (2010). The outcast-lash-out effect in youth: Alienation increases aggression following peer rejection. Psychological Science, 21, 1394–1398. doi:10.1177/0956797610381509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reijntjes, A., Thomaes, S., Kamphuis, J. H., Bushman, B. J., de Castro, B. O., & Telch, M. J. (2011). Explaining the paradoxical rejection-aggression link: The mediating effects of hostile intent attributions, anger, and decreases in state self-esteem on peer rejection-induced aggression in youth. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 955–963. doi:10.1177/0146167211410247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richman, L., & Leary, M. R. (2009). Reactions to discrimination, stigmatization, ostracism, and other forms of interpersonal rejection: A multimotive model. Psychological Review, 116(2), 365–383. doi:10.1037/a0015250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ridgeway, C. L. (2009). Framed before we know it: How gender shapes social relations. Gender and Society, 23(2), 145-160. doi: 10.1177/0891243208330313.

  • Robers, S., Kemp, J., Rathbun, A., & Morgan, R. E. (2014). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2013. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodkin, P. C., Espelage, D. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2015). A relational framework for understanding bullying: Developmental antecedents and outcomes. American Psychologist, 70, 311–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., & Asher, S. R. (1999). Children’s goals and strategies in response to conflicts within a friendship. Developmental Psychology, 35, 69–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98–131. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D., Troop-Gordon, W., & Flynn, M. (2009). Relational victimization predicts children’s social-cognitive and self-regulatory responses in a challenging peer context. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1444–1454. doi:10.1037/a0014858.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., & Kaukiainen, A. (2004). “Female aggression” revisited: Variable- and person- centered approaches to studying gender differences in different types of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 30, 158–163. doi:10.1002/ab.20012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., Kaukiainen, A., & Lagerspetz, K. (2000). Aggression and sociometric status among peers: Do gender and types of aggression matter? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 41, 17–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheithauer, H., Hayer, T., Petermann, F., & Jugert, G. (2006). Physical, verbal, and relational forms of bullying among German students: Age trends, gender differences, and correlates. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 261–275. doi:10.1002/ab.20128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigurdson, J. F., Wallander, J., & Sund, A. M. (2014). Is involvement in school bullying associated with general health and psychosocial adjustment outcomes in adulthood? Child Abuse and Neglect, 38, 1607–1617. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.06.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sincek, D. (2014, September). Gender differences in cyber-bullying. Paper presented at international multidisciplinary scientific conference on social sciences and arts, Albena, Bulgaria.

  • Slaby, R. G., & Guerra, N. G. (1988). Cognitive mediators of aggression in adolescent offenders: I. Assessment. Developmental Psychology, 24, 580–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. H., Barkley, R. A., & Shapiro, C. J. (2009). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Assessment of childhood disorders (4th ed., pp. 53–131). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smokowski, P. R., Evans, C. B. R., & Cotter, K. L. (2014). The differential impacts of episodic, chronic, and cumulative physical bullying and cyberbullying: The effects of victimization on the school experiences, social support, and mental health of rural adolescents. Violence and Victims, 29, 1029–1046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solberg, M. E., & Olweus, D. (2003). Prevalence estimation of school bullying with the Olweus bully/victim questionnaire. Aggressive Behavior, 29(3), 239–268. doi:10.1002/ab.10047.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sommer, F., Leuschner, V., & Scheithauer, H. (2014). Bullying, romantic rejection, and conflicts with teachers: The crucial role of social dynamics in the development of school shootings–A systematic review. International Journal of Developmental Science, 8, 3–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stankova, T., Eichhammer, P., Langguth, B., & Sand, P. G. (2012). Sexually dimorphic effects of oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) variants on harm avoidance. Biology of Sex Differences, 3, 17–21. doi:10.1186/2042-6410-3-17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stavrindes, P., Georgious, S., & Theofanous, V. (2010). Bullying and empathy: A short-term longitudinal investigation. Educational Psychology, 30, 793–802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stomp Out Bullying. (2016). #STOMP out bullying. http://www.stompoutbullying.org/.

  • Stroud, L. R., Salovey, P., & Epel, E. S. (2002). Sex differences in stress responses: Social rejection versus achievement stress. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 318–327. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01333-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E. (2006). Tend and befriend: Biobehavioral bases of affiliation under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 273–277. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00451.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107, 411–429. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.107.3.411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomada, G., & Schneider, B. H. (1997). Relational aggression, gender, and peer acceptance: Invariance across culture, stability over time, and concordance among informants. Developmental Psychology, 33(4), 601–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tumblr. (2015). #Post it forward. http://postitforward.tumblr.com/.

  • Turton, S., & Campbell, C. (2005). Tend and befriend versus fight or flight: Gender differences in behavioral response to stress among university students. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 10, 209–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Stucke, T. S. (2001). If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1058–1069. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.6.1058.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K. (2002). Sticks and stones and social exclusion: Aggression among girls and boys. In P. K. Smith & C. H. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development (pp. 533–548). Hoboken: Blackwell Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T., Brendgen, M., Boivin, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2003). A longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis of indirect and physical aggression: Evidence of two factors over time. Child Development, 74, 1628–1638. doi:10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00628.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T., Clinton, J., McDougall, P., Schmidt, L. A., & Hymel, S. (2010). The neurobiology of peer victimization and rejection. In S. R. Jimerson, S. M. Swearer, & D. L. Espelage (Eds.), Handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp. 293–304). Florence: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vossekuil, B., Reddy, M., Fein, R., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2000). U.S.S.S. safe school initiative: Am interim report on the prevention of targeted violence in schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service, National Threat Assessment Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waller, R., Corral-Frías, N. S., Vannucci, B., Bogdan, R., Knodt, A. R., Hariri, A. R., & Hyde, L. W. (2016). An oxytocin receptor polymorphism predicts amygdala reactivity in antisocial behavior in men. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11, 1218–1226. doi:10.1093/scan/nsw042.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Nansel, T. R. (2009). School bullying among adolescents in the United States: Physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 368–375. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.03.021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weik, U., Maroof, P., Zöller, C., & Deinzer, R. (2010). Pre-experience of social exclusion suppresses cortisol response to psychosocial stress in women but not in men. Hormones and Behavior, 58(5), 891–897. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.08.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing Gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151. doi:10.1177/0891243287001002002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (1997). Social ostracism. In R. M. Kowalski (Ed.), Aversive interpersonal behaviors, The Springer Series in Social/Clinical Psychology (pp. 133-170). US: Springer.

  • Williams, K. D., & Zadro, L. (2001). Ostracism: On being ignored, excluded, and rejected. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 21–53). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Nesdale, D. (2013). Anxious and angry rejection sensitivity, social withdrawal, and retribution in high and low ambiguous situations. Journal of Personality, 81, 29–38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00792.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Nesdale, D., McGregor, L., Mastro, S., Goodwin, B., & Downey, G. (2013). Comparing reports of peer rejection: Associations with rejection sensitivity, victimization, aggression, and friendship. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1237–1246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zwolinski, J. (2012). Psychology and neuroendocrine reactivity to ostracism. Aggressive Behavior, 38, 108–125. doi:10.1002/ab.21411.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Social Science Research Center, Mississippi State University, 1 Research Boulevard, Suite 103, Starkville, MS, 39759, USA

    Megan Stubbs-Richardson, H. Colleen Sinclair, Rebecca M. Goldberg, Chelsea N. Ellithorpe & Suzanne C. Amadi

Authors
  1. Megan Stubbs-Richardson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H. Colleen Sinclair
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rebecca M. Goldberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Chelsea N. Ellithorpe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Suzanne C. Amadi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Megan Stubbs-Richardson.

Ethics declarations

Funding

The project is funded by the National Institute of Justice School Safety Initiative and can be found on the Open Science Framework at www.osf.io/fyvxp. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.

Appendix

Appendix

Survey Instrument

We are interested in how students get along with one another. Please think about your relationship with other STUDENTS AT YOUR SCHOOL DURING THE PAST SIX MONTHS. For each of the statements, please answer questions using the scale provided.

PA Some students engage in physical aggression, such as hitting, kicking, and shoving other students. Physical aggression may also include any other attempts that have the potential to cause physical harm to another person. (PA = Physical Aggression).

VA Some students engage in verbal aggression, such as calling others names to hurt feelings, making fun of others to cause harm, or making threats of harm. Verbal aggression may also include any other attempts to cause psychological harm. (VA = Verbal Aggression).

SA Some students engage in social aggression, such as spreading rumors about other students, purposely leaving people out of social groups or social events, turning people against each other, or giving the silent treatment. Social aggression may also include any other attempts to cause social harm. (SA = Social or Relational Aggression).

CA Some students engage in cyber aggression, such as posting negative things about others online or posting/sharing inappropriate pictures by electronic means (e.g., by use of cell phones, social media, social applications, or internet access). Cyber aggression may also include any other attempts to cause harm by electronic means. (CA = Cyber Aggression).

(Note: Items are shown for one type of aggression at a time.)

CSB01 How often do you do this? _____.

CSB02 How often has this happened to you? _____.

0

1

2

3

4

5

Never

Once

Rarely

Sometimes

Almost all of the time

All of the time

If the response is more than once (response answer 2+), pop up with: “Please recall the most recent, serious incident when answering the remainder of the questions”

Negative Affect

NEGAFF.01 To what extent did this experience make you feel sad?

NEGAFF.02 To what extent did this experience make you feel upset?

NEGAFF.03 To what extent did this experience make you feel angry?

NEGAFF.04 To what extent did this experience make you feel embarrassed?

0

1

2

3

4

Not at all

   

Definitely

Low Self-Esteem

SELF.01 To what extent did this experience make you feel bad about yourself?

SELF.02 To what extent did this experience harm your self-esteem?

SELF.03 To what extent did this experience make you feel as though you have few good qualities?

0

1

2

3

4

Not at All

   

Definitely

Response to Rejection Survey

If someone became physically aggressive (changed based on the type of aggression) towards me, I would generally respond/have responded by:

WITH.01 Trying to avoid situations where I have to be with other people.

WITH.02 Keeping to myself.

WITH.03 Thinking of ways to avoid seeing people.

WITH.04 Deciding to spend more time alone.

ANTI.01 Getting angry and arguing with the person/persons who hurt me.

ANTI.02 Doing to others what was done to me.

ANTI.03 Thinking of ways to get back at the person/persons who hurt me.

ANTI.04 Saying negative things about the person/persons to other people.

PRO.01 Going to someone (e.g., parent, teacher, friend) for help.

PRO.02 Working things out with the person/persons who were aggressive towards me.

PRO.03 Doing nice things for others.

0

1

2

3

4

Not at All

   

Definitely

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Stubbs-Richardson, M., Sinclair, H.C., Goldberg, R.M. et al. Reaching Out versus Lashing Out: Examining Gender Differences in Experiences with and Responses to Bullying in High School. Am J Crim Just 43, 39–66 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9408-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9408-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation