Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Pilot Experiment: the Effect of Added Flavorants on the Taste and Pleasantness of Mixtures of Glycerol and Propylene Glycol

  • Published:
Chemosensory Perception

Abstract

Introduction

The US Food and Drug Administration banned most “sweet” flavorants for use in cigarettes due to the concern that sweet flavors appeal to young, beginning smokers. However, many of the same flavors, including fruity and confection-associated aromas (e.g., vanilla), are still used in e-cigarettes. Sweet flavors may have a number of effects, including enhancement of the taste of other ingredients. The current work focused on the impact of model flavorants on the taste of a mixture of propylene glycol and vegetable glycerine, solvents used in most e-cigarettes and related products.

Methods

A device delivered mixtures of propylene glycol and vegetable glycerine into the mouth in parallel with puffs of clean air (control) or odorized air. Aromas included two “fruity” esters (“pineapple” and “banana”), two confection-associated aromas (“vanilla” and “caramel/malty”), menthol (not a “sweet” aroma, but commonly used in e-cigarettes), and a “burnt” aroma not expected to enhance flavor. Twenty young adults, aged 18–25, rated the sweetness, bitterness, and pleasantness of all stimuli (within-subjects design).

Results

Both fruity aromas significantly enhanced sweetness, both confection-associated aromas significantly enhanced pleasantness, and the caramel/malty aroma significantly reduced bitterness. Menthol and the “burnt” aroma had no measurable effects on the taste of solvent mixtures.

Conclusion

Some flavorants modulated the taste of solvents commonly used in e-cigarettes in ways consistent with an enhanced sensory profile.

Implications

If similar effects occur in actual products, improved flavor profiles could facilitate continued use, particularly in non-smokers experimenting with e-cigarettes and related products.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • 111th Congress (2009) Family smoking prevention and tobacco control and federal retirement reform. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-111publ31/html/PLAW-111publ31.htm. Accessed 27 July 2017.

  • Ambrose BK, Day HR, Rostron B, Conway KP, Borek N, Hyland A, Villanti AC (2015) Flavored tobacco product use among US youth aged 12-17 years, 2013-2014. JAMA 314(17):1871. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.13802

  • Audrain-McGovern J, Strasser AA, Wileyto EP (2016) The impact of flavoring on the rewarding and reinforcing value of e-cigarettes with nicotine among young adult amokers. Drug Alcohol Depend 166:263–267. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.06.030

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartoshuk LM, Duffy VB, Green BG, Hoffman HJ, Ko CW, Lucchina LA, Marks LE, Snyder DJ, Weiffenbach JM (2004) Valid across-group comparisons with labeled scales: the gLMS versus magnitude matching. Physiol Behav 82(1):109–114. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.02.033

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berg CJ (2016) Preferred flavors and reasons for E-cigarette use and discontinued use among never, current, and former smokers. Int J Public Health 61(2):225–236. doi:10.1007/s00038-015-0764

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bingham AF, Birch GG, de Graaf C, Behan JM, Perring KD (1990) Sensory studies with sucrose-maltol mixtures. Chem Senses 15(4):447–456. doi:10.1093/chemse/15.4.447

  • Bohn MJ, Babor TF, Kranzler HR (1995) The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): validation of a screening instrument for use in medical settings. J Stud Alcohol 56(4):423–432. doi:10.15288/jsa.1995.56.423

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter CM, Wayne GF, Pauly JL, Koh HK, Connolly GN (2005) New cigarette brands with flavors that appeal to youth: tobacco marketing strategies. Health Aff (Project Hope) 24(6):1601–1610. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.24.6.1601

  • Clark CC, Lawless HT (1994) Limiting response alternatives in time-intensity scaling: an examination of the halo-dumping effect. Chem Senses 19(6):583–594. doi:10.1093/chemse/19.6.583

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly GN (2004) Sweet and spicy flavours: new brands for minorities and youth. Tob Control 13(3):211–212. doi:10.1136/tc.2004.009191

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy DB, Rawal S, Park J, Brand MH, Sharafi M, Bolling BW (2016) Characterizing and improving the sensory and hedonic responses to polyphenol-rich aronia berry juice. Appetite 107:116–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duke JC, Lee YO, Kim AE, Watson KA, Nonnemaker JM, Porter L (2014) Exposure to electronic cigarette television advertisements among youth and young adults. Pediatrics 134(1):e29–e36. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-0269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunnett CW (1955) A multiple comparison procedure for comparing several treatments with a control. J Am Stat Assoc 50:1096–1121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FDA, Center for Tobacco Products (2016a) http://www.fda.gov/TobaccoProducts/Labeling/RulesRegulationsGuidance/ucm394909.htm

  • FDA, Center for Tobacco Products (2016b) https://www.fda.gov/TobaccoProducts/Labeling/ProductsIngredientsComponents/ucm456610.htm

  • Frank RA (2002) Response context affects judgments of flavor components in foods and beverages. Food Qual Pref 14:139–145. doi:10.1016/S0950-3293(02)00073-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frank RA, Byram J (1988) Taste-smell interactions are tastant and odorant dependent. Chem Senses 13(3):445–455. doi:10.1093/chemse/13.3.445

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giovenco DP, Hammond D, Corey CG, Ambrose BK, Delnevo CD (2015) E-cigarette market trends in traditional U.S. retail channels, 2012-2013. Nicotine Tob Res 17(10):1279–1283. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntu282

  • Green BG, Shaffer GS, Gilmore MM (1993) Derivation and evaluation of a semantic scale of oral sensation magnitude with apparent ratio properties. Chem Senses 18:683–702. doi:10.1093/chemse/18.6.683

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green BG, Dalton P, Cowart B, Shaffer G, Rankin K, Higgins J (1996) Evaluating the ‘labeled magnitude scale’ for measuring sensations of taste and smell. Chem Senses 21(3):323–334. doi:10.1093/chemse/21.3.323

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green BG, Nachtigal D, Hammond S, Lim J (2012) Enhancement of Retronasal odors by taste. Chem Senses 37(1):77–86. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjr068

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isogai T, Wise PM (2016) The effects of odor quality and temporal asynchrony on modulation of taste intensity by retronasal odor. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjw059

  • Kim H, Lim J, Buehler SS, Brinkman MC, Johnson NM, Wilson L, Cross KS, Clark PL (2016) Role of sweet and other flavours in liking and disliking of electronic cigarettes. Tob Control 25:ii55–ii61. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2016-053221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King BA, Patel R, Nguyen KH, Dube SR (2015) Trends in awareness and use of electronic cigarettes among US adults, 2010-2013. Nicotine Tob Res 17(2):219–227. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntu191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein SM, Giovino GA, Barker DC, Tworek C, Cummings KM, O'Connor RJ (2008) Use of flavored cigarettes among older adolescent and adult smokers: United States, 2004--2005. Nicotine Tob Res 10(7):1209–1214. doi:10.1080/14622200802163159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kong G, Morean ME, Cavallo DA, Camenga DR, Krishnan-Sarin S (2015) Reasons for electronic cigarette experimentation and discontinuation among adolescents and young adults. Nicotine Tob Res 17(7):847–854. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntu257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreslake JM, Wayne GF, Connolly GN (2008) The menthol smoker: tobacco industry research on consumer sensory perception of menthol cigarettes and its role in smoking behavior. Nicotine Tob Res 10(4):705–715. doi:10.1080/14622200801979134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan-Sarin S, Morean ME, Camenga DR (2014) E-cigarette use among high school and middle school adolescents in Connecticut. Nicotine Tob Res:1–9. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntu243

  • Labbe D, Rytz A, Morgenegg C, Ali S, Martin A (2007) Subthreshold olfactory stimulation can enhance sweetness. Chem Senses 32(3):205–214. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjl040

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawless HT, Clark CC (1992) Psychological biases in time intensity scaling. Food Technol 46:81–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis MJ, Wackowski O (2006) Dealing with an innovative industry: a look at flavored cigarettes promoted by mainstream brands. Am J Public Health 96(2):244–251. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.061200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mcneill A, Brose LS, Calder R, Hitchman SC (2015) E-cigarettes: an evidence update. A report commissioned by Public Health England. Public Health England: 111. www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/454516/Ecigarettes_an_evidence_update_A_report_commissioned_by_Public_Health_England.pdf

  • Mermelstein R, Fiore MC, Bernstein SL, Delnevo C, Croyle RT, Emmons KM, Eissenberg TE, Hyland A, Ostroff JS, Prochaska J, Ribisi K, Schnoll RA, Sindelar J, Vidrine JI, Winickoff JP, Web Hooper M (2016) Tobacco control research priorities for the next decade: Working group recommendations for 2016–2025. Report to the NCI Board of Scientific Advisors Web site. http://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/pdf/nci-tobacco-control-research-priorities-rpt-feb-2016.pdf

  • Minaker LM, Rashid A, Hammond D, Manske S (2014) Flavored tobacco use among Canadian students in grades 9 through 12: prevalence and patterns from the 2010-2011 youth smoking survey. Prev Chronic Dis 11(4):1–9. doi:10.5888/pcd11.140094

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukai J, Tokuyama E, Ishizaka T, Okada S, Ochida T (2007) Inhibitory effect of aroma on the bitterness of branched-chain amino acid solutions. Chem Pharm Bull 55(11):1581–1584. doi:10.1248/cpb.55.1581

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor RJ, Ashare RL, Cummings KM, Hawk LW (2007) Comparing smoking behaviors and exposures from flavored and unflavored cigarettes. Addict Behav 32(4):869–874. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.06.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver AJ, Jensen JA, Vogel RI, Anderson AJ, Hatsukami DK (2013) Flavored and nonflavored smokeless tobacco products: rate, pattern of use, and effects. Nicotine Tob Res 15(1):88–92. doi:10.1093/ntr/nts093

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pepper JK, Reiter PL, McRee A, Cameron LD, Gilkey MB, Brewer NT (2013) Adolescent males’ awareness of and willingness to try electronic cigarettes. J Adolesc Health 52(2):144–150. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pepper JK, Ribisl KM, Brewer NT (2016). Adolescents’ interest in trying flavoured e-cigarettes. Tobacco Control. Published online first: 15 September 2016. doi: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2016-053174

  • Plevkova J, Kollarik M, Poliacek I, Brozmanova M, Surdenikova L, Tatar M (2013) The role of trigeminal nasal TRPM8-expressing afferent neurons in the antitussive effects of Menthol. J Appl Physiol (1985) 115(2):268–274. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01144.2012

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prescott J (1999) Flavour as a psychological construct: implications for perceiving and measuring the sensory qualities of foods. Food Qual Pref 10:349–356. doi:10.1016/S0950-3293(98)00048-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prescott J (2012) Multimodal chemosensory interactions and perception of flavor. In: The neural bases of multisensory processes. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 703–716 ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

    Google Scholar 

  • Prescott J, Tylaor A, Roberts D (2004) Psychological processes in flavour perception. In: Flavour perception. Blackwell Publishing, London, pp 256–277

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rosbrook K, Green BG (2016) Sensory effect of menthol and nicotine in an e-cigarette. Nicotine Tob Res. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntw019

  • Sakai N, Kobayakawa T, Gotow N, Saito S, Imada S (2001) Enhancement of sweetness ratings of aspartame by a vanilla odor presented either by orthonasal or retronasal routes. Percept Mot Skills 92(3 Pt 2):1002–1008. doi:10.2466/pms.2001.92.3c.1002

  • Skinner HA (1982) The drug abuse screening test. Addict Behav 7(4):363–371. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(82)90005-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson RJ, Prescott J, Boakes RA (1995) The acquisition of taste properties by odors. Learn Motiv 26:1–23. doi:10.1016/S0023-9690(05)80006-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2012) Preventing tobacco use among youth and young adults: a report of the surgeon general. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 3[accessed 2016 Apr 14]

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2014) The health consequences of smoking—50 years of progress: a report of the surgeon general. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 17 [accessed 2016 Apr 14]. aahb.wildapricot.org

  • Wang L, Yongcheng Z, Li Q, Zeng DD, Leischow SJ, Okamoto J (2015) An examination of electronic cigarette content on social media: analysis of E-cigarette flavor content on Reddit. Int J Environ Res Public Health 12(11):14933–14952. doi:10.3390/ijerph121114916

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis DN, Liu B, Ha MA, Jordt SE, Morris JB (2011) Menthol attenuates respiratory irritation responses to multiple cigarette smoke irritants. FASEB J 25(12):4434–4444. doi:10.1096/fj.11-188383

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wise PM, Breslin PA (2011) Relationships among taste qualities assessed with response-context effects. Chem Senses 36(7):581–587. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjr024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wise PM, Preti G, Eades J, Wysocki CJ (2011) The effect of menthol vapor on nasal sensitivity to chemical irritation. Nicotine Tob Res 13(10):989–997. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was funded in part by P50-CA-179546, NIH/NCI/FDA, University of Pennsylvania Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-3308, USA

    Pradnya D. Rao, Nanding Husile & Paul M. Wise

  2. Department of Food Science, Goodwin College of Professional Studies, Drexel University, 33rd and Arch St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA

    Pradnya D. Rao & Paul M. Wise

  3. Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Nicotine Addiction, University of Pennsylvania, 3535 Market Street Suite 4100, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA

    Andrew A. Strasser

Authors
  1. Pradnya D. Rao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nanding Husile
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andrew A. Strasser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Paul M. Wise
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul M. Wise.

Ethics declarations

Funding

This work was funded in part by P50-CA-179546, NIH/NCI/FDA, and in part by funds from [the authors’ institutions, not specifically listed to comply with double-blind peer review].

Conflict of Interest

PMW currently receives research funding from major food, beverage, and food ingredients companies. None of these companies provided funding for or were in any way involved in the current research. AAS has active research grants from the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) and US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has previously been funded by NIH and FDA, as well as a peer-reviewed GRAND grant sponsored by Pfizer (2008–2011). HN has recently been hired as a full-time employee by Kerry, a flavor and nutrition company. PDR declares that she has no potential conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. All procedures were approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of [not included here to comply with double-blind peer review].

Informed Consent

Written, informed consent was obtained from all individual participants in the study, using IRB approved forms, before any study procedures were performed.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rao, P.D., Husile, N., Strasser, A.A. et al. Pilot Experiment: the Effect of Added Flavorants on the Taste and Pleasantness of Mixtures of Glycerol and Propylene Glycol. Chem. Percept. 11, 1–9 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12078-017-9231-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12078-017-9231-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation