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Brexit and social security of mobile persons

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Abstract

If one looks at the history of UK and EU relations, the UK Leave vote may not seem a surprise. Attempts were made by the EU to enable further membership of the UK. Despite the Leave vote “offers” to the UK might still be relevant for other Member States. Among the most intriguing questions are: what social security rights will persons moving between the EU and the UK have after Brexit? Will there be an agreement including them or not, or will reliance be put on old and outdated bilateral agreements? Could the coordination instruments of the Council or Europe or the ILO be applied? Solutions will have to be found, since people will not stop moving just because of Brexit.

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Notes

  1. Winston Churchill delivered the speech at the University of Zurich on September 19, 1946. http://churchill-in-zurich.ch/en/churchill/en-churchills-zurcher-rede/ (May 2017).

  2. Which still includes, among others, Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa http://thecommonwealth.org/ (May 2017).

  3. http://churchill-in-zurich.ch/en/churchill/en-churchills-zurcher-rede/ (May 2017).

  4. For more on why Britain voted to leave the EU, see Clarke/Goodwin/Whiteley [3].

  5. The Prime Minister Theresa May’s letter to the President of the European Council Donald Tusk on 29 March 2017.

  6. Gowland/Turner/Wright [9], p. 4.

  7. Gowland/Turner/Wright [9], p. 5.

  8. Its long title is An Act to make provision in connection with the enlargement of the European Communities to include the United Kingdom, together with (for certain purposes) the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man and Gibraltar, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1972/68 (May 2017).

  9. UK Department for Exiting the EU [26], p. 5.

  10. UK Department for Exiting the EU [26], p. 7.

  11. David Cameron, at the time UK Prime Minister, pleading for less free movement, based predominately on the experience of Romanian and Bulgarian citizens, countries which joined the EU in 2007 (https://www.ft.com/content/add36222-56be-11e3-ab12-00144feabdc0, May 2017). Also the citizens of so-called A8 countries are often mentioned. “A8” is a political acronym related to eight out of 10 Member States which joined the EU in 2004 (and not to motorways, e.g., in France or Germany, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/panorama/4479759.stm, May 2017). However, it should be noted that it is not a bundle of countries, where everything is the same (including social security) and much worse than in other Member States. There are important distinctions between them, e.g., Slovenia (as part of former Yugoslavia) was never part of neither West nor East Bloc.

  12. Shaw [17], p. 301.

  13. Directive 2004/38/EC on the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States amending Regulation (EEC) No. 1612/68 and repealing Directives 64/221/EEC, 68/360/EEC, 72/194/EEC, 73/148/EEC, 75/34/EEC, 75/35/EEC, 90/364/EEC, 90/365/EEC and 93/96/EEC [2004] OJ L 158/77.

  14. UK HM Government [27], p. 25.

  15. There are also the Treaties, Regulation (EU) 492/2011 on freedom of movement for workers within the Union [2011] OJ L 141/1, and others.

  16. On Constitutional provisions related to social security Wujczyk et al. [30].

  17. The latter can manifest as vertical (between persons of higher or lower income), horizontal (between men and women, old and young, disabled and able bodied, individuals and families) and intergenerational solidarity (between generations). See EU Treaty [2012] OJ C 326/13, especially its preamble (“deepen the solidarity between their peoples”), Art. 2 (“solidarity”) and Art. 3 (“solidarity between generations”) and Title IV Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union [2012] OJ C 326/391.

  18. See Art. 12 and Art. 13 of the European Social Charter.

  19. Verschueren [29], p. 71.

  20. Social assistance is also included in the social security system on national laws of many Member States.

  21. Art. 20 and 28 German Constitution (Grundgesetz). Eichenhofer [5], p. 49.

  22. Preamble of the 1946 Constitutions expressly mentions solidarity, whereas the preamble and Art. 2 of the 1958 constitution emphasise brotherhood (fraternity).

  23. E.g., in the Slovenian Constitution state governed by the rule of law and social state principles are enshrined in the same Article (Art. 2).

  24. Stated by Margaret Thatcher, former UK Prime Minister in 1987 (http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=106689, May 2017).

  25. Also a leading principle of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), mentioned on the occasion of the Nobel Prize winning ceremony. http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1969/press.html, May 2017). Eichenhofer [5], p. 10.

  26. See further Gilbert [8], p. 69.

  27. Vanke [28], p. 151.

  28. On the 1972 Norwegian referendum, 53.5% of the vote was against acceding to the EU. It appears that sovereignty concerns were at the top of voters’ concerns, http://sciencenordic.com/why-norwegians-never-wanted-eu-membership (May 2017).

  29. Art. 117–128 of the EEC Treaty [2002] OJ C 325/33 (consolidated version).

  30. Provisions on social protection (social security and social assistance) are provided for in point 10 of the Community Social Charter. More at https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/observatories/eurwork/industrial-relations-dictionary/community-charter-of-the-fundamental-social-rights-of-workers (May 2017).

  31. Nevertheless, it was key to the launching of initiatives in employment and industrial relations policy, which resulted in a number of directives during the 1990s, among them on pregnancy and maternity, working time, European works council and the directives based on the framework agreements on parental leave, part-time work and fixed-term work. It was also part of the inspiration for the later Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, adopted in 2000.

  32. Bercusson [1], p. 624.

  33. Now Articles 78–80 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU [2012] OJ C 326/47 (consolidated version).

  34. Article 48 EEC Treaty. Social security coordination was based on Article 51 EEC Treaty.

  35. The social security regulations are accompanied by implementing regulations, i.e., Regulation (EEC) 4/58 and Regulation (EEC) 574/72, respectively.

  36. CASSTM/59/6 of the Administrative Commission on social security for migrant workers. Cornelissen [4], p. 25.

  37. Today Articles 48 and 352 TFEU.

  38. Council Regulation (EC) No. 859/2003 of 14 May 2003 extending the provisions of Regulation (EEC) No. 1408/71 and Regulation (EEC) No. 574/72 to nationals of third countries who are not already covered by those provisions solely on the ground of their nationality [2003] OJ L 124/1.

  39. Cornelissen [4], p. 26.

  40. Cornelissen [4], p. 28.

  41. Regulation (EC) No. 883/2004 on the coordination of social security systems [2004] OJ L 166/1.

  42. Apart from refugees and stateless persons who were covered also by Regulations (EEC) 3/58 and 1408/71.

  43. Chapter on Policies on border checks, asylum and immigration, Articles 78 and following TFEU.

  44. Regulation (EU) No. 1231/2010 extending Regulation (EC) No. 883/2004 and Regulation (EC) No. 987/2009 to nationals of third countries who are not already covered by these Regulations solely on the ground of their nationality [2010] OJ L 344/1.

  45. Consolidated version of the TFEU—Protocol (No. 30) on the application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union to Poland and to the UK [2008] OJ C 115/313.

  46. Treaty on European Union, consolidated version [2012] OJ C 326/13.

  47. Withdrawal of the Member State was foreseen also in the Treaty on establishing a Constitution for Europe (Article I-60, Voluntary withdrawal from the Union), which, due to referendums in France and the Netherlands, was never adopted.

  48. Streinz [24], p. 19.

  49. Treaty amending, with regard to Greenland, the Treaties establishing the European Communities [1985] OJ L 29/1.

  50. All actions and official documents in chronological manner are available at http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/eu-uk-after-referendum/, last accessed in May 2017.

  51. Point 6 and 8 Directives for the negotiation of an agreement with the UK setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal from the EU, Brussels, 22 May 2017.

  52. General elections in the UK the 8 June 2017 weakened somewhat the position of the current Prime Minister.

  53. Justice secretary, Liz Truss, said triggering article 50 was “irrevocable” and a “one-way ticket”. However, the UK government distanced itself from the claim https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/mar/27/brexit-everything-you-need-to-know-about-how-the-uk-will-leave-the-eu, May 2017.

  54. Lord Kerr, the UK’s former ambassador to the EU who drafted article 50, said: “It is not irrevocable. You can change your mind while the process is going on. During that period, if a country were to decide actually we don’t want to leave after all, everybody would be very cross about it being a waste of time. They might try to extract a political price but legally they couldn’t insist that you leave.” http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-37852628, last accessed in May 2017.

  55. Streinz [24], p. 24 mentions the general rule of favour contractus from the Vienna convention on the law of the treaties. According to this Convention notification of termination of a treaty may be revoked at any time before it takes effect (Art. 68). See also https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/mar/27/brexit-everything-you-need-to-know-about-how-the-uk-will-leave-the-eu, last accessed in May 2017.

  56. Strban [22].

  57. Chapter III of the Commission recommendation of 26.4.2017 on the European Pillar of Social Rights, C(2017) 2600 final.

  58. Schoukens [16].

  59. For amendments of Regulation (EC) 883/2004 unified vote is no longer required and the quality majority suffices (Art. 48 TFEU). However, the right to a veto was not abolished, but only modified. Every Member State can request a decision of the European Council (so called alarm or brake procedure), which again decides with unanimity.

  60. Jorens, Y., Van Overmeiren, F. [12]. More on EESSI at http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=869 (May 2017).

  61. Strban et al. [20].

  62. Brussels, 19 February 2016, EUCO 1/16.

  63. Art. 1(z), 15, 67 and following Regulation (EC) 883/2004.

  64. Case C-611/10 Hudziński and Wawrzyniak, EU:C:2012:339. Strban [21], p. 788.

  65. Probably yes (C-4/13 Fassbender-Firman, EU:C:2014:2344). Extensively B. Spiegel, Export of family benefits (ERA, 2016).

  66. Case C-41/84 Pinna, EU:C:1986:1.

  67. Point I.(2) European Council Conclusions (18 and 19 February 2016).

  68. Reference could be made also to cross-border healthcare, where many go for treatment to high income Member States, and the reason why lower income state cannot provide healthcare seems irrelevant (for example Case C-268/13 Petru, EU:C:2014:2271).

  69. Case C-308/14 European Commission v UK, EU:C:2016:436 (14 June 2016).

  70. Case C-140/12 Brey, EU:C:2013:565, Case C-333/13 Dano, EU:C:2014:2359, Case C-67/14 Alimanovic, EU:C:2015:597, Case C-299/14 Garcia-Nieto, EU:C:2016:114.

  71. Verschueren [29], p. 81.

  72. Arguing that less than 1% of child benefits in the EU are exported from one Member State to another. http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=%20de&catId=89&newsId=2699, last accessed in May 2017.

  73. Shaw [17], p. 303.

  74. http://derstandard.at/2000049193350/250-Millionen-Euro-an-Familienleistungen-gehen-ins-EU-Ausland.

  75. http://www.wienerzeitung.at/nachrichten/oesterreich/politik/880018_Oesterreich-bleibt-bei-Familienbeihilfe-hart.html.

  76. Felten [7].

  77. Out of an anticipated €100 million savings, €30 should be from reduced payments to Hungary. https://www.rtvslo.si/evropska-unija/avstrija-namerava-znizati-otroske-dodatke-za-tuje-delavce/420023.

  78. http://burgenland.orf.at/news/stories/2757510/.

  79. Case C-308/14 European Commission v UK, EU:C:2016:436.

  80. Case C-308/14 European Commission v UK, EU:C:2016:436.

  81. Verschueren [29], p. 81. Spaventa [19], p. 89.

  82. Case C-308/14 European Commission v UK, EU:C:2016:436.

  83. Strban [21], p. 778.

  84. http://www.dguv.de/de/internationales/neues/20170329_brexit/index.jsp.

  85. Art. 12 Regulation (EC) 883/2004. They might differ from posting rules in labour law and in tax law.

  86. Practical guide on the applicable legislation in the EU, the EEA and in Switzerland, European Commission, December 2013, pp. 7–20.

  87. UK Department for Exiting the EU [26], p. 11, point 1.20.

  88. Regulation (EU) 1231/2010.

  89. For rules on healthcare of pensioners see Art. 23 and the subsequent Regulation (EC) 883/2004. It is estimated that more than 1.2 million UK citizens live in other EU countries. 309,000 of those are in Spain and more than 100.000 of them are pensioners. Spain is the EU country to which the UK makes the largest reimbursement (some £220 million annually in 2016) for healthcare given to its citizens. Cayon-De Las Cuevas/Harvey [2], p. 1; House of Commons [10], p. 31.

  90. Strban et al. [20].

  91. O’Brien [14].

  92. Art. 8 Regulation (EC) 883/2004 and Art. 6 former Regulation (EEC)1408/71.

  93. Strban et al. [20], p. 66.

  94. Cases C-227/89 Rönfeldt, EU:C:1991:52 and C-475/93 Thévenon, EU:C:1995:371.

  95. Strban [23], p. 89.

  96. Bilateral agreements could not be negotiated whilst the UK remains a member of the EU and negotiation must take place with the EU.

  97. Solera [18], p. 71.

  98. Klosse [13], Strban et al. [20], p. 49.

  99. Other agreements are on research, technical barriers to trade, civil aviation, overland transport, agriculture and public procurement. Jorens/Strban [11], p. 16. On Swiss model Tobler [25]; Epiney [6], p. 77.

  100. [1985] OJ L 160/7. See also Article 90 of Regulation (EC) 883/2004.

  101. Rathke [15], p. 225.

  102. Jorens/Strban [11].

  103. https://rightsinfo.org/breaking-theresa-may-will-not-try-leave-european-convention-human-rights/, May 2017.

  104. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/jan/03/european-convention-human-rights-threat, May 2017.

  105. Possibly by repealing the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) and replace it with a British Bill of Rights http://www.europeanfutures.ed.ac.uk/article-1347, last accessed in May 2017.

  106. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/12/28/theresa-may-fight-2020-election-plans-take-britain-european/ (December 2016, last accessed May 2017).

  107. On denunciation see Art. 58 ECHR. However, according to the Statute of the Council of Europe (Art. 3), every member of the Council of Europe must accept the enjoyment by all persons within its jurisdiction of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

  108. Pichkur v. Ukraine, Appl. no. 10441/06, Final 7.2.2014.

  109. See Art. 12 para. 4 ESC.

  110. E.g., Conclusions 2013, Slovenia, p. 32, since Slovenia has not concluded bilateral agreements with all Member States of the Council of Europe.

  111. Convention No. 157 was ratified only by Kyrgyzstan, Philippines, Spain and Sweden. Strban [23], p. 99.

  112. And possible separate agreements between the UK and EEA as well as the UK and Switzerland.

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    Grega Strban

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Strban, G. Brexit and social security of mobile persons. ERA Forum 18, 165–185 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12027-017-0478-z

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