Abstract
Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) used to be considered a rarity in children, but recently has been estimated to effect 4.4 million children in the USA alone, with a notable rise in investigative research in the field of pediatric ACD. Researchers have shown that patch testing is safe and effective in afflicted children and that those with atopic dermatitis (AD) have similar sensitization rates, although they have a higher sensitization to certain allergens, thought to be related to the inflammatory (IL-4) milieu. Patch testing assessment guidelines in children include five key considerations: if a patient’s dermatitis worsens, changes distribution, fails to improve with topical therapy, or immediately rebounds after removal of topical treatments; if a patient has a particular distribution of dermatitis; if a working patient has hand eczema that fails to improve with therapy; if the patient has AD that started in adolescence or adulthood with definitely no history of childhood eczema; and importantly, if a patient has severe or widespread atopic dermatitis that will require immunosuppressive systemic medication.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- CD:
-
Contact dermatitis
- ICD:
-
Irritant contact dermatitis
- ACD:
-
Allergic contact dermatitis
- PPTR:
-
Positive patch test reaction
- AD:
-
Atopic dermatitis
- RPPT:
-
Relevant positive patch test
- NACDG:
-
The North American Contact Dermatitis Group
- PCDR:
-
The Pediatric Contact Dermatitis Registry
- TEWL:
-
Transepidermal water loss
- E.A.S.I.:
-
Eczema area and severity index
- AOY:
-
Allergen of the Year
- TCS:
-
topical corticosteroids
References
Lim HW, Collins SAB, Resneck JS, Jr., Bolognia JL, Hodge JA, Rohrer TA, et al. The burden of skin disease in the United States. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2017;76(5):958–972.e952
Weston WL, Weston JA. Allergic contact dermatitis in children. American journal of diseases of children (1960). 1984;138(10):932–936
Hjorth N (1981) Contact dermatitis in children. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl 95:36–39
Straus HW (1931) Artificial sensitization of infants to poison ivy. Journal of allergy 2(3):137–144
Angelini G, Meneghini C (1977) Contact and bacterial allergy in children with atopic dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 3(3):163–167
Pevny I, Brennenstuhl M, Razinskas G (1984) Patch testing in children. Contact Dermatitis 11(4):201–206
Hammershoy O (1980) Standard patch test results in 3,225 consecutive Danish patients from 1973 to 1977. Contact Dermatitis 6(4):263–268
Weston JA, Hawkins K, Weston WL (1983) Foot dermatitis in children. Pediatrics 72(6):824–827
Leyden JJ, Kligman AM (1979) Contact dermatitis to neomycin sulfate. JAMA 242(12):1276–1278
Pevny I, Brennenstuhl M, Razinskas G (1984) Patch testing in children (II). Contact Dermatitis 11(5):302–310
Fregert S, Moller H (1963) Contact allergy to balsam of Peru in children. Br J Dermatol 75:218–220
Epstein S, Mohajerin AH (1964) Incidence of contact sensitivity in atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 90(3):284–287
Weston WL, Weston JA, Kinoshita J, Kloepfer S, Carreon L, Toth S, Bullard D, Harper K, Martinez S (1986) Prevalence of positive epicutaneous tests among infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics 78(6):1070–1074
Burros MA, Baptista A, Correia T, Azevedo F (1991) Patch testing in children: a study of 562 schoolchildren. Contact Dermatitis 25(3):156–159
Bruckner AL, Weston WL, Morelli JG (2000) Does sensitization to contact allergens begin in infancy? Pediatrics 105(1):e3–e3
Admani S, Jacob SE (2014) Allergic contact dermatitis in children: review of the past decade. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 14(4):421
Buckley D, Rycroft R, White I, McFadden J (2003) The frequency of fragrance allergy in patch-tested patients increases with their age. Br J Dermatol 149(5):986–989
Roul S, Ducombs G, Taieb A (1999) Usefulness of the European standard series for patch testing in children: a 3-year single-centre study of 337 patients. Contact Dermatitis 40(5):232–235
Duarte I, Lazzarini R, Kobata CM (2003) Contact dermatitis in adolescents. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 14(4):200–204
Beattie P, Green C, Lowe G, Lewis-Jones M (2007) Which children should we patch test? Clin Exp Dermatol 32(1):6–11
Czarnobilska E, Obtulowicz K, Dyga W, Wsolek-Wnek K, Spiewak R (2009) Contact hypersensitivity and allergic contact dermatitis among school children and teenagers with eczema. Contact Dermatitis 60(5):264–269
Jacob SE, Brod B, Crawford GH (2008) Clinically relevant patch test reactions in children—a United States based study. Pediatr Dermatol 25(5):520–527
Zug KA, McGinley-Smith D, Warshaw EM, Taylor JS, Rietschel RL, Maibach HI, Belsito DV, Fowler JF Jr, Storrs FJ, DeLeo V, Marks JG Jr, Mathias CG, Pratt MD, Sasseville D (2008) Contact allergy in children referred for patch testing: North American Contact Dermatitis Group data, 2001–2004. Arch Dermatol 144(10):1329–1336
Zug KA, Pham AK, Belsito DV, DeKoven JG, DeLeo VA, Fowler JF Jr et al (2014) Patch testing in children from 2005 to 2012: results from the North American contact dermatitis group. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 25(6):345–355
Belloni Fortina A, Fontana E, Peserico A (2016) Contact sensitization in children: a retrospective study of 2,614 children from a single center. Pediatr Dermatol 33(4):399–404
Goldenberg A, Mousdicas N, Silverberg N, Powell D, Pelletier JL, Silverberg JI, Zippin J, Fonacier L, Tosti A, Lawley L, Wu Chang M, Scheman A, Kleiner G, Williams J, Watsky K, Dunnick CA, Frederickson R, Matiz C, Chaney K, Estes TS, Botto N, Draper M, Kircik L, Lugo-Somolinos A, Machler B, Jacob SE (2016) Pediatric contact dermatitis registry inaugural case data. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 27(5):293–302
Epstein E (1971) Contact dermatitis in children. Pediatr Clin N Am 18(3):839–852
Levy A, Hunau D, Foussereau J (1980) Contact dermatitis in children. Contact Dermatitis 6(4):260–262
Pigatto P, Martelli A, Marsili C, Fiocchi A (2010) Contact dermatitis in children. Ital J Pediatr 36:2
Jacob SE, McGowan M, Silverberg NB, Pelletier JL, Fonacier L, Mousdicas N, et al. Pediatric contact dermatitis registry data on contact allergy in children with atopic dermatitis. JAMA dermatology. 2017
Jacob SE (2017) Percutaneous absorption risks in atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 177(1):11–12
Darlenski R, Kazandjieva J, Tsankov N, Fluhr JW (2013) Acute irritant threshold correlates with barrier function, skin hydration and contact hypersensitivity in atopic dermatitis and rosacea. Exp Dermatol 22(11):752–753
Irvine AD, McLean WI, Leung DY (2011) Filaggrin mutations associated with skin and allergic diseases. N Engl J Med 365(14):1315–1327
De Jongh C, Khrenova L, Verberk M, Calkoen F, Van Dijk F, Voss H et al (2008) Loss-of-function polymorphisms in the filaggrin gene are associated with an increased susceptibility to chronic irritant contact dermatitis: a case-control study. Br J Dermatol 159(3):621–627
Thyssen JP, Linneberg A, Ross-Hansen K, Carlsen BC, Meldgaard M, Szecsi PB, Stender S, Menné T, Johansen JD (2013) Filaggrin mutations are strongly associated with contact sensitization in individuals with dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 68(5):273–276
Novak N, Baurecht H, Schäfer T, Rodriguez E, Wagenpfeil S, Klopp N, Heinrich J, Behrendt H, Ring J, Wichmann E, Illig T, Weidinger S (2008) Loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene and allergic contact sensitization to nickel. J Investig Dermatol 128(6):1430–1435
Thyssen J, McFadden J, Kimber I (2014) The multiple factors affecting the association between atopic dermatitis and contact sensitization. Allergy 69(1):28–36
Kaplan DH, Igyártó BZ, Gaspari AA (2012) Early immune events in the induction of allergic contact dermatitis. Nat Rev Immunol 12(2):114–124
Gittler JK, Krueger JG, Guttman-Yassky E (2013) Atopic dermatitis results in intrinsic barrier and immune abnormalities: implications for contact dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 131(2):300–313
Dhingra N, Shemer A, da Rosa JC, Rozenblit M, Fuentes-Duculan J, Gittler JK et al (2014) Molecular profiling of contact dermatitis skin identifies allergen-dependent differences in immune response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 134(2):362–372
Uehara M, Sawai T (1989) A longitudinal study of contact sensitivity in patients with atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 125(3):366–368
Newell L, Polak ME, Perera J, Owen C, Boyd P, Pickard C, Howarth PH, Healy E, Holloway JW, Friedmann PS, Ardern-Jones MR (2013) Sensitization via healthy skin programs Th2 responses in individuals with atopic dermatitis. J Investig Dermatol 133(10):2372–2380
Dieli F, Sireci G, Scire E, Salerno A, Bellavia A (1999) Impaired contact hypersensitivity to trinitrochlorobenzene in interleukin-4-deficient mice. Immunology 98:71–79. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2567.1999.00844
Machler BC, Sung CT, Darwin E, Jacob SE (2018) Dupilumab use in allergic contact dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2018.07.043
da Rosa JC, Malajian D, Shemer A, Rozenblit M, Dhingra N, Czarnowicki T et al (2015) Patients with atopic dermatitis have attenuated and distinct contact hypersensitivity responses to common allergens in skin. J Allergy Clin Immunol 135(3):712–720
Cavani A, Pennino D, Eyerich K (2012) Th17 and Th22 in skin allergy. Chemical immunology and allergy 96:39–44
Chen JK, Jacob SE, Nedorost ST, Hanifin JM, Simpson EL, Boguniewicz M, Watsky KL, Lugo-Somolinos A, Hamann CR, Eberting CL, Silverberg JI, Thyssen JP (2016) A pragmatic approach to patch testing atopic dermatitis patients: clinical recommendations based on expert consensus opinion. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 27(4):186–192
Kohli N, Nedorost S. Inflamed skin predisposes to sensitization to less potent allergens. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2016;75(2):312–317.e311
Rajka JL, Hanifin JM (1976) Immunodeficiencies in severe atopic dermatitis: depressed chemotaxis and lymphocyte transformation. Arch Dermatol 112(10):1391–1396
Thyssen J, Johansen J, Linneberg A, Menné T, Engkilde K (2012) The association between contact sensitization and atopic disease by linkage of a clinical database and a nationwide patient registry. Allergy 67(9):1157–1164
Thyssen J, Linneberg A, Engkilde K, Menné T, Johansen J (2012) Contact sensitization to common haptens is associated with atopic dermatitis: new insight. Br J Dermatol 166(6):1255–1261
Herro EM, Matiz C, Sullivan K, Hamann C, Jacob SE (2011) Frequency of contact allergens in pediatric patients with atopic dermatitis. The Journal of clinical and aesthetic dermatology 4(11):39–41
Rees J, Friedmann PS, Matthews JN (1990) Contact sensitivity to dinitrochlorobenzene is impaired in atopic subjects: controversy revisited. Arch Dermatol 126(9):1173–1175
Lever R, Forsyth A (1992) Allergic contact dermatitis in atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl 176:95–98
Forsbeck M, Hovmark A, Skog E (1976) Patch testing, tuberculin testing and sensitization with dinitrochlorobenzene and nitrosodimethylanilini of patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 56(2):135–138
Jones HE, Lewis CW, McMarlin SL (1973) Allergic contact sensitivity in atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 107(2):217–222
Hamann CR, Bernard S, Hamann D, Hansen R, Thyssen JP (2015) Is there a risk using hypoallergenic cosmetic pediatric products in the United States? J Allergy Clin Immunol 135(4):1070–1071
Mailhol C, Lauwers-Cances V, Rance F, Paul C, Giordano-Labadie F (2009) Prevalence and risk factors for allergic contact dermatitis to topical treatment in atopic dermatitis: a study in 641 children. Allergy 64(5):801–806
Seo KS, Park JY, Terman DS, Bohach GA (2010) A quantitative real time PCR method to analyze T cell receptor Vβ subgroup expansion by staphylococcal superantigens. J Transl Med 8(1):2
Aquino M, Fonacier L (2014) The role of contact dermatitis in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2(4):382–387
Jacob SE, Goldenberg A, Nedorost S, Thyssen JP, Fonacier L, Spiewak R (2015) Flexural eczema versus atopic dermatitis. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 26(3):109–115
Allen HB, Vaze ND, Choi C, Hailu T, Tulbert BH, Cusack CA, Joshi SG (2014) The presence and impact of biofilm-producing staphylococci in atopic dermatitis. JAMA dermatology 150(3):260–265
Hann S, Hughes T, Stone N (2007) Flexural allergic contact dermatitis to benzalkonium chloride in antiseptic bath oil. Br J Dermatol 157(4):795–798
Winnicki M, Shear NH (2011) A systematic approach to systemic contact dermatitis and symmetric drug-related intertriginous and flexural exanthema (SDRIFE). Am J Clin Dermatol 12(3):171–180
Panther DJ, Jacob SE (2015) The importance of acidification in atopic eczema: an underexplored avenue for treatment. Journal of clinical medicine. 4(5):970–978
Admani S, Matiz C, Jacob SE (2016) Countering Staphylococcus overgrowth during patch testing in children with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis. Pediatr Dermatol 33(1):56–61
Whitmore SE (1994) Should atopic individuals be patch tested? Dermatol Clin 12(3):491–499
Fortina AB, Romano I, Peserico A, Eichenfield LF (2011) Contact sensitization in very young children. J Am Acad Dermatol 65(4):772–779
Malajian D, Belsito DV (2013) Cutaneous delayed-type hypersensitivity in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 69(2):232–237
Belhadjali H, Mohamed M, Youssef M, Mandhouj S, Chakroun M, Zili J (2008) Contact sensitization in atopic dermatitis: results of a prospective study of 89 cases in Tunisia. Contact Dermatitis 58(3):188–189
Simonsen AB, Deleuran M, Johansen JD, Sommerlund M (2011) Contact allergy and allergic contact dermatitis in children—a review of current data. Contact Dermatitis 65(5):254–265
Jacob SE, Burk CJ, Connelly EA (2008) Patch testing: another steroid-sparing agent to consider in children. Pediatr Dermatol 25(1):81–87
Man M-Q, Hatano Y, Lee SH, Man M, Chang S, Feingold KR, Leung DYM, Holleran W, Uchida Y, Elias PM (2008) Characterization of a hapten-induced, murine model with multiple features of atopic dermatitis: structural, immunologic, and biochemical changes following single versus multiple oxazolone challenges. J Investig Dermatol 128(1):79–86
Goldenberg A, Silverberg N, Silverberg JI, Treat J, Jacob SE (2015) Pediatric allergic contact dermatitis: lessons for better care. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 3(5):661–667
Clayton T, Wilkinson S, Rawcliffe C, Pollock B, Clark S (2006) Allergic contact dermatitis in children: should pattern of dermatitis determine referral? A retrospective study of 500 children tested between 1995 and 2004 in one UK centre. Br J Dermatol 154(1):114–117
Hill H, Goldenberg A, Golkar L, Beck K, Williams J, Jacob SE (2016) Pre-Emptive Avoidance Strategy (PEAS)–addressing allergic contact dermatitis in pediatric populations. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 12(5):551–561
Jacob SE, Herro EM, Sullivan K, Matiz C, Eichenfield L, Hamann C (2011) Safety and efficacy evaluation of TRUE TEST panels 1.1, 2.1, and 3.1 in children and adolescents. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 22(4):204–210
Jacob SE, Admani S, Herro EM (2014) Invited commentary: recommendation for a North American pediatric patch test series. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 14(6):1
Heine G, Schnuch A, Uter W, Worm M (2004) Frequency of contact allergy in German children and adolescents patch tested between 1995 and 2002: results from the Information Network of Departments of Dermatology and the German Contact Dermatitis Research Group. Contact Dermatitis 51(3):111–117
Rodrigues DF, Goulart EMA (2016) Patch-test results in children and adolescents: systematic review of a 15-year period. An Bras Dermatol 91(1):64–72
Goldenberg A, Lipp M, Jacob SE (2017) Appropriate testing of isothiazolinones in children. Pediatr Dermatol 34(2):138–143
Pelletier JL, Perez C, Jacob SE (2016) Contact dermatitis in pediatrics. Pediatr Ann 45(8):e287–e292
Fowler JF Jr, Maibach HI, Zirwas M, Taylor JS, DeKoven JG, Sasseville D et al (2012) Effects of immunomodulatory agents on patch testing: expert opinion 2012. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 23(6):301–303
Isaksson M, Olhardt S, Rådehed J, Svensson Å (2015) Children with atopic dermatitis should always be patch-tested if they have hand or foot dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 95(5):583–586
Jacob SE, Amini S (2008) Cocamidopropyl betaine. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug 19(3):157–160
Beltrani VS, Bernstein IL, Cohen DE, Fonacier L (2006) Contact dermatitis: a practice parameter. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 97(3):S1–S38
Shaughnessy CN, Malajian D, Belsito DV (2014) Cutaneous delayed-type hypersensitivity in patients with atopic dermatitis: reactivity to surfactants. J Am Acad Dermatol 70(4):704–708
Marks Jr JG, DeLeo VA. Contact & occupational dermatology: JP Medical Ltd; 2016
Wakelin S, Smith H, White I, Rycroft R, McFadden J (2001) A retrospective analysis of contact allergy to lanolin. Br J Dermatol 145(1):28–31
Jacob SE, Steele T (2006) Corticosteroid classes: a quick reference guide including patch test substances and cross-reactivity. J Am Acad Dermatol 54(4):723–727
Fortina AB, Romano I, Peserico A (2005) Contact sensitization to Compositae mix in children. J Am Acad Dermatol 53(5):877–880
Lu LK, Warshaw EM, Dunnick CA (2009) Prevention of nickel allergy: the case for regulation? Dermatol Clin 27(2):155–161 vi-vii
Rasmussen A, Jacob SE. Dandelion: an important allergen in atopic children. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 2017;28(2):166
Institute N. Materials selection & use. https://www.nickelinstitute.org. Accessed 10/1/2017
Hsu JW, Matiz C, Jacob SE (2011) Nickel allergy: localized, id, and systemic manifestations in children. Pediatr Dermatol 28(3):276–280
Silverberg NB, Licht J, Friedler S, Sethi S, Laude TA (2002) Nickel contact hypersensitivity in children. Pediatr Dermatol 19(2):110–113
Warshaw EM, Botto NC, Zug KA, Belsito DV, Maibach HI, Sasseville D et al (2008) Contact dermatitis associated with food: retrospective cross-sectional analysis of north American contact dermatitis group data, 2001–2004. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 19(5):252–260
Fowler JF Jr (2016) Cobalt. Dermatitis : contact, atopic, occupational, drug. 27(1):3–8
Gardner KH, Davis MD, Richardson DM, Pittelkow MR (2010) The hazards of moist toilet paper: allergy to the preservative methylchloroisothiazolinone/methylisothiazolinone. Arch Dermatol 146(8):886–890
Mowad CM (2000) Methylchloroisothiazolinone revisited. American Journal of Contact Dermatitis 11(2):115–118
Lundov MD, Moesby L, Zachariae C, Johansen JD (2009) Contamination versus preservation of cosmetics: a review on legislation, usage, infections, and contact allergy. Contact Dermatitis 60(2):70–78
Maier LE, Lampel HP, Bhutani T, Jacob SE (2009) Hand dermatitis: a focus on allergic contact dermatitis to biocides. Dermatol Clin 27(3):251–264
Aerts O, Cattaert N, Lambert J, Goossens A (2013) Airborne and systemic dermatitis, mimicking atopic dermatitis, caused by methylisothiazolinone in a young child. Contact Dermatitis 68(4):250–251
Aerts O, Baeck M, Constandt L, Dezfoulian B, Jacobs M-C, Kerre S, Lapeere H, Pierret L, Wouters K, Goossens A (2014) The dramatic increase in the rate of methylisothiazolinone contact allergy in Belgium: a multicentre study. Contact Dermatitis 71(1):41–48
Yosipovitch G, Maayan-Metzger A, Merlob P, Sirota L (2000) Skin barrier properties in different body areas in neonates. Pediatrics 106(1):105–108
Öhman H, Vahlquist A (1998) The pH gradient over the stratum corneum differs in X-linked recessive and autosomal dominant ichthyosis: a clue to the molecular origin of the “acid skin mantle”? J Investig Dermatol 111(4):674–677
Ali SM, Yosipovitch G (2013) Skin pH: from basic science to basic skin care. Acta Derm Venereol 93(3):261–269
Angelova-Fischer I, Dapic I, Hoek AK, Jakasa I, Fischer TW, Zillikens D, Kezic S (2014) Skin barrier integrity and natural moisturising factor levels after cumulative dermal exposure to alkaline agents in atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 94(6):640–644
Behne MJ, Meyer JW, Hanson KM, Barry NP, Murata S, Crumrine D, Clegg RW, Gratton E, Holleran WM, Elias PM, Mauro TM (2002) NHE1 regulates the stratum corneum permeability barrier homeostasis microenvironment acidification assessed with fluorescence lifetime imaging. J Biol Chem 277(49):47399–47406
Fluhr JW, Elias PM, Man M-Q, Hupe M, Selden C, Sundberg JP, Tschachler E, Eckhart L, Mauro TM, Feingold KR (2010) Is the filaggrin–histidine–urocanic acid pathway essential for stratum corneum acidification? The Journal of investigative dermatology 130(8):2141–2144
Korting HC, Hübner K, Greiner K, Hamm G, Braun-Falco O (1990) Differences in the skin surface pH and bacterial microflora due to the long-term application of synthetic detergent preparations of pH 5.5 and pH 7.0. Results of a crossover trial in healthy volunteers. Acta Derm Venereol 70(5):429–431
Whiting R, Sackitey S, Calderone S, Morely K, Phillips J (1996) Model for the survival of Staphylococcus aureus in nongrowth environments. Int J Food Microbiol 31(1–3):231–243
Schittek B, Hipfel R, Sauer B, Bauer J, Kalbacher H, Stevanovic S, Schirle M, Schroeder K, Blin N, Meier F, Rassner G, Garbe C (2001) Dermcidin: a novel human antibiotic peptide secreted by sweat glands. Nat Immunol 2(12):1133–1137
Niyonsaba F, Ogawa H (2005) Protective roles of the skin against infection: implication of naturally occurring human antimicrobial agents β-defensins, cathelicidin LL-37 and lysozyme. J Dermatol Sci 40(3):157–168
Chikakane K, Takahashi H (1995) Measurement of skin pH and its significance in cutaneous diseases. Clin Dermatol 13(4):299–306
Rippke F, Schreiner V, Schwanitz H-J (2001) The acidic milieu of the horny layer: new findings on the physiology and pathophysiology of skin pH. Am J Clin Dermatol 3(4):261–272
Rundle CW, Bergman D, Goldenberg A, Jacob SE (2017) Contact dermatitis considerations in atopic dermatitis. Clin Dermatol 35:367–374
Elias PM, Schmuth M (2009) Abnormal skin barrier in the etiopathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 9(4):265–272
Cork MJ, Danby SG, Vasilopoulos Y, Hadgraft J, Lane ME, Moustafa M, Guy RH, MacGowan AL, Tazi-Ahnini R, Ward SJ (2009) Epidermal barrier dysfunction in atopic dermatitis. J Investig Dermatol 129(8):1892–1908
GRAIS ML (1953) Role of colloidal oatmeal in dermatologic treatment of the aged. AMA archives of dermatology and syphilology 68(4):402–407
Panther DJ, Jacob SE (2015) The importance of acidification in atopic eczema: an underexplored avenue for treatment. Journal of clinical medicine 4(5):970–978
Kamsteeg M, Jansen P, Vlijmen-Willems V, Van Erp P, Rodijk-Olthuis D, Van Der Valk P et al (2010) Molecular diagnostics of psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, allergic contact dermatitis and irritant contact dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 162(3):568–578
Riis JL, Johansen C, Vestergaard C, Bech R, Kragballe K, Iversen L (2011) Kinetics and differential expression of the skin-related chemokines CCL27 and CCL17 in psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and allergic contact dermatitis. Exp Dermatol 20(10):789–794
Batra J, Ghosh B (2008) N-acetyltransferases as markers for asthma and allergic/atopic disorders. Curr Drug Metab 9(6):546–553
Dupes S. List of cleansers & their pH. http://www.skincaredupes.com/master-list-of-cleansers-ph/. Published 2017
Shi VY, Tran K, Lio PA (2012) A comparison of physicochemical properties of a selection of modern moisturizers: hydrophilic index and pH. Journal of drugs in dermatology : JDD 11(5):633–636
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Borok, J., Matiz, C., Goldenberg, A. et al. Contact Dermatitis in Atopic Dermatitis Children—Past, Present, and Future. Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol 56, 86–98 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-018-8711-2
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-018-8711-2