Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A hypothesis for crack free interior surfaces of Longyou caverns caved in argillaceous siltstone 2000 years ago

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Frontiers of Architecture and Civil Engineering in China Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Five complete caverns were discovered in Longyou in 1992. They were manually caved in argillaceous siltstone at shallow depths more than 2000 years ago. When they were un-watered, their integrity was maintained completely, and their interior rock surfaces were free of old cracks. Since then, however, the rock’s interior faces have initiated and propagated more and more cracks. This paper attempts to address the question of why the rock interior faces were free of old cracks once they were unearthed. To address this question, this paper proposes a hypothesis that the argillaceous siltstone has the ability of self-healing its cracks over a short period of time under weak acid water environment. Data and evidence are presented herewith to prove the hypothesis. They include observations and measurements in the field and test results in the laboratory. Specifically, a three-point bending test is used to form a tensile crack in a rectangular rock specimen and a dead load test for the specimen immersed in initially weak acid water is used for self-healing its crack. The results have shown that the argillaceous siltstone is in a state of weak alkalinity and the rain water at the site is in a state of weak acidity. Therefore, when it is immersed in weak acid water for some time, the argillaceous siltstone would be able to make chemical reactions to generate new minerals such as calcite. The new minerals would be able to infill the cracks and then heal the crack within a few years. Once the crack is self-healed, the rock can regain its strength and integrity. Consequently, the rock interior surfaces could be free of old cracks when the water was pumped out of the caverns.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Yue Z Q, Li L H, Yang Z F, Lu M, Xu J H, Zheng J. An investigation on long-term stability and integrity of surrounding rocks in Longyou caverns caved 2000 years ago. In: Ribeiro L. e Sousa, Olalla C, Grossmann N. Proceedings of the 11th Congress of the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM 2007). Lisbon: Taylor & Francis, 2007, 19–22

    Google Scholar 

  2. Yang L D, Yang Z F, Lu M. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Protection of Longyou grottoes in China. Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2005, 668 (in English & Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  3. Yang Z F, Yue Z Q, Li L H. Scientific and Technical Issues and Merits of Longyou Large Ancient Underground Rock Caverns (in Chinese). Beijing: China Science Publishing, 2010 (in preparation)

    Google Scholar 

  4. Guo G M, Li L H, Yang Z F, Tao B, Qu Y X, Zheng J. Weathering mechanism of the cretaceous argillaceous siltstone caverns. Bulletin of engineering geology and the environment, 2005, 64(4): 397–407

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Li L H, Yang Z F, Yue Z Q, Pan W, Mu H C. Deformation and failure modes and reinforcement methods of the large ancient underground cavern group found in Longyou. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2005, 24(12): 2018–2028 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  6. Li L H, Yang Z F, Yue Z Q, Zhang L Q. Engineering geological characteristics, failure modes and protective measures of Longyou rock caverns of 2000 years old. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, 2009, 24(2): 190–207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Yang Z F, Li L H, Pan W, Lu M, Zheng J. Discussions about large-scale ancient underground engineering. Science Technology and Engineer, 2003, 3(5): 464–466 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  8. Yang Z F, Li L H, Zhang L Q, Gao B L, Zeng Q B, Lu M, Zheng J. On back analysis of long-term shear strength of No.4-2 rock pillar in the No.4 cavern of Longyou caverns. Journal of Engineering Geology, 2005, 13(1): 62–67 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  9. Sun J, Ling J M, Jia G, Zhan Y P. China’s Longyou grottoes, Zhejiang Province. News Journal, 2001, 6(3): 44–46

    Google Scholar 

  10. Sun J, Ling J M, Jia G, Zhan Y P. Examining the Longyou grottoes in the western land of Zhejiang Province from the view point of engineering science. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2001, 20(1): 131–133 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  11. Li L, Tanimoto C. Research on the argillaceous cement of sandstone at Longyou grottoes. Journal of Engineering Geology, 2005, 13(2): 189–194 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  12. Li L, Tanimoto C. Study of the water-stabilization of the sandstone of the Lonyou grottoes. Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology, 2005, 17(4): 28–33 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  13. Li L, Wang S J, Tanimoto C. Study of weathering characteristics of sandstone at Longyou grottoes. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2008, 27(6): 1217–1222 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  14. Ding W X, Feng X T, Chen C B. Experimental study on chemical reinforcement of resisting weathering of red sandstone. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2005, 24(21): 3841–3846 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  15. Lu Z D, Ding W X, Feng X T, Zhang Y L. Experimental study on mechano-hydro-chemical coupling process in cracked rocks. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2008, 27(4): 796–804 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  16. Zhang W M, Xiao C Z. Application of anchoring and sprayed concreting techniques to emergent stabilization of Longyou caverns No.4 and 5. China Science and Technology Information, 2007, 73–74(in Chinese)

  17. Zhao L X, Xiao C Z. Stability analysis and reinforcement measures for roof rocks at eastern part of Longyou cavern No.3. China Science and Technology Information, 2007, 73–74 (in Chinese)

  18. Stormont J C, Daement J J K. Laboratory study of gas-permeability in rock salt during deformation. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, 1992, 29(4): 325–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Zhao J, Bergh-Christensen J. Construction and utilization of rock caverns in Singapore. Two proposed cavern schemes. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 1996, 11(1): 85–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Hatzor Y H, Benary R. The stability of a laminated voussoir beam: back analysis of a historic roof collapse using DDA. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 1998, 35(2):165–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Hudson J. Rock mechanics studies for disposal of radioactive waste in the UK: 1979–1999. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Rock Mechanics of Nuclear Waste Repositories. Colorado: 1999, 229–258

  22. Pittman B. Texas Caves. Texas A & M University Press College Station, USA, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  23. Zuber A, Grabczak J, Garlicki A. Catastrophic and dangerous inflows to salt mines in Poland as related to the origin of water determined by isotope methods. Environmental Geology, 2000, 39(3–4): 299–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Talesnick M L, Hatzor Y H, Tsesarsky M. The elastic deformability and strength of a high porosity, anisotropic chalk. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 2001, 38: 543–555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Hatzor Y H, Talesnick M, Tsesarsky M. Continuous and discontinuous stability of the bell-shaped caverns at Bet Gurvrin, Israel. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 2002, 39(7): 867–886

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Hou Z. Mechanical and hydraulic behavior of rock salt in the excavation disturbed zone around underground facilities. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 2003, 40(5): 725–738

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Tezuka M, Seoka T. Latest technology of underground rock cavern excavation in Japan. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2003, 18(2–3): 127–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Chijimatsu M, Nguyen T S, Jing L, De Jonge J, Kohlmeier M, Millard A, Rejeb A, Rutqvist J, Souley M, Sugita Y. Numerical study of the THM effects on the near-field safety of a hypothetical nuclear waste repository - BMT1 of the DECOVALEX III project. Part 1: Conceptualization and characterization of the problems and summary of results. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 2005, 42(5–6): 720–730

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Millard A, Rejeb A, Chijimatsu M, Jing L, De Jonge J, Kohlmeier M, Nguyen T S, Rutqvist J, Souley M, Sugita Y. Numerical study of the THM effects on the near-field safety of a hypothetical nuclear waste repository - BMT1 of the DECOVALEX III project. Part 2: Effects of THM coupling in continuous and homogeneous rocks. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 2005, 42(5–6): 731–744

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Rutqvist J, Chijimatsu M, Jing L, Millard A, Nguyen T S, Rejeb A, Sugita Y, Tsang C F. A numerical study of THM effects on the nearfield safety of a hypothetical nuclear waste repository - BMT1 of the DECOVALEX III project. Part 3: Effects of THM coupling in sparsely fractured rocks. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 2005, 42(5–6): 745–755

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Bérest P. Questions on the prediction of the long-term behaviour of underground openings. Ribeiro e Sousa L, Olalla C, Grossman N, eds. In: Proceedings of the 11th Congress of the international Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM 2007). Taylor & Francis, 2007, (3): 1413–1425

  32. Cetinkaya E. Modelling peak-load exploitation of underground gas storage in salt caverns Turkish and Polish case studies. Archives of Mining Sciences, 2007, 52(1): 21–47

    MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  33. Yang C H, Li Y P, Qian Q H, Wei D H, Chen F, Yin X Y. Usability evaluation of the existing solution-mined caverns for gas storage. In: Wallner M, Lux K H, Minkley W, Hardy H R, eds. Mechanical Behavior of Salt-Understanding of THMC Processes in Salt, 2007, 399–400

  34. Qi S W, Yue Z Q, Liu C L, Zhou Y D. Significance of outward dipping strata in argillaceous limestones in the area of the Three Gorges reservoir, China. Bulletin of Engineering Geolody and the Environment, 2009, 68(2): 195–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Qi S W, Yue Z Q, Wu F Q, Chang Z H. Deep weathering of a group of thick argillaceous limestone rocks near Three Gorges reservoir, Central China. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 2009, 46(5): 929–939

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Yue Z Q, Yang Z F, Zhang L Q. Self-healing of rock cracks for natural protection of Longyou caverns. Huang R Q, Niek R, Li Z Q, Tang C, eds. In: Proceedings of International Symposium and the 7th Asian Regional Conference of IAEG. Chengdu, 2009: 835

  37. Miao S, Wang M L, Schreyer H L. Constitutive models for healing of materials with application to compaction of crushed rock salt. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 1995, 121(10): 1122–1129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Smith D L, Evans B. Diffusional crack healing in quartz. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1984, 89(NB6): 4125–4135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Hickman S H, Evans B. Influence of geometry upon crack healing rate in calcite. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 1987, 15(1): 91–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Brantley S L, Evans B, Hickman S H, Crerar D A. Healing of microcracks in quartz: implications for fluid flow. Geology, 1990, 18: 136–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Wanamaker B J, Wong T F, Evans B. Decrepitation and crack healing of fluid inclusions in San Carlos olivine. Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth and Planets, 1990, 95(B10): 15623–15641

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Wool R P. Self-healing materials: a review. Soft Matter, 2008, 4(3): 400–418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Shinya N, Kyono J. Self-healing of damage in heat resisting steel. In: Wilson A R, Varadan V V, eds. Smart Materials II, 2002, 4934: 50–257

  44. Brown E N, White S R, Sottos N R. Microcapsule induced toughening in a self-healing polymer composite. Journal of Materials Science, 2004, 39(5): 1703–1710

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Ando K, Furusawa K, Takahashi K, Sato S. Crack-healing ability of structural ceramics and a new methodology to guarantee the structural integrity using the ability and proof-test. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 2005, 25(5): 549–558

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Van der Zwaag S. Self-healing Materials: an Alternative to 20 Centuries of Materials Science. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Self-healing Materials. Dordrecht: Spring, ISBN 978-1-4020-6249-0

  47. Edvardsen C. Water permeability and autogenous healing of cracks in concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 1999, 448–455

  48. Reinhardt H W, Jooss M. Permeability and self-healing of cracked concrete as a function of temperature and crack width. Cement and Concrete Research, 2003, 33(7): 981–985

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Fan X M, Li Z Q, Sun X H, Tan Z Q. Current status and development of crack self-healing in cement concrete. China Concrete and Cement Products, 2006, 150(4): 13–16

    Google Scholar 

  50. Schlangen E, ter Heide N, van Breugel K. Crack healing of early age cracks in concrete. In: Konsta Gdoutos MS, ed. Measuring, Monitoring and Modelling Concrete Properties. 2006, 273–284

  51. Jonkers H M, Schlangen E. Self-healing of cracked concrete: A bacterial approach. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures. Italy, 2007, 1–3: 1821–1826

    Google Scholar 

  52. Sahmaran M. Effect of flexure induced transverse crack and self-healing on chloride diffusivity of reinforced mortar. Journal of Materials Science, 2007, 42(22): 9131–9136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Sahmaran M, Li V C. De-icing salt scaling resistance of mechanically loaded engineered cementitious composites. Cement and Concrete Research, 2007, 37(7): 1035–1046

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Sahmaran M, Yaman I O. Influence of transverse crack width on reinforcement corrosion initiation and propagation in mortar beams. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 2008, 35(3): 236–245

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Civil Engineering Department, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

    Zhong Qi Yue & Shaopeng Fan

  2. Key Laboratory of Engineering Geomechanics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029, China

    Zhifa Yang, Lihui Li, Luqing Zhang & Zhongjian Zhang

Authors
  1. Zhong Qi Yue
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shaopeng Fan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Zhifa Yang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lihui Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Luqing Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Zhongjian Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zhong Qi Yue.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Yue, Z.Q., Fan, S., Yang, Z. et al. A hypothesis for crack free interior surfaces of Longyou caverns caved in argillaceous siltstone 2000 years ago. Front. Archit. Civ. Eng. China 4, 165–177 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-010-0018-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-010-0018-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation