Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Dynamics and sustainability of urban agriculture: examples from sub-Saharan Africa

  • Special Feature: Original Article
  • Land use and ecosystems
  • Published:
Sustainability Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Urban agriculture can have many different expressions, varying from backyard gardening to poultry and livestock farming. This article focuses on crop production on larger open spaces in cities of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and investigates the sustainability and dynamics of this type of land use, which is common on undeveloped plots particularly in lowlands, such as in inland valleys, or along urban streams or drains. An adapted version of the Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management (FESLM) developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was used to assess the sustainability of urban agriculture. As an example for dynamics, the spatio-temporal changes of open-space agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, are analyzed for the period from 1992 to 2005, and compared with data from other cities. Crop production on urban open spaces appears as a market-driven, highly productive and profitable phenomenon. However, it is often constrained by tenure insecurity and non-agricultural land demands. Also, the common use of polluted water limits the official support of irrigated urban farming. However, despite these constraints, the phenomenon of urban farming appears persistent and resilient to its changing environment, although individual farmers might have to shift to other sites when their plots are needed for construction. Open-space vegetable production in urban areas is a dynamic, viable and largely sustainable livelihood strategy, especially for poor urban dwellers. Spatio-temporal analysis shows that it is not a short-lived or transitional phenomenon—probably as long as it can maintain its comparative market advantage. However, its informal nature and resulting lack of political recognition need to be addressed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In general, the extent of urban agricultural land use is even higher than reported here, as several hundred backyard gardens smaller than 1,000 m2 were not included in the open-space surveys.

References

  • Amoah P, Drechsel P, Abaidoo RC, Ntow WJ (2006) Pesticide and pathogen contamination of vegetables in Ghana’s urban markets. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 50(1):1–6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Atukunda G (2000) Urban agriculture in Kampala, Uganda: reviewing research impacts. CFP Report 29B, IDRC, Ottawa. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-8249-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html. Accessed 03-09-2008

  • Birley M, Lock K (1999) The health impacts of peri-urban natural resource development. Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Cromwell Press, Trowbridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourque M (2000) Policy options for urban agriculture. In: Bakker N, Dubbeling M, Gündel S, Sabel-Koschella U, de Zeeuw H (eds) Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on the policy agenda, Deutsche Stiftung für internationale Entwicklung (DSE). Zentralstelle für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, Feldafing, pp 119–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Cissé O, Gueye NFD, Sy M (2005) Institutional and legal aspects in urban agriculture in French-speaking West Africa: from marginalization to legitimization. Environ Urban 17(2):143–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornish GA, Lawrence P (2001) Informal irrigation in peri-urban areas: a summary of findings and recommendations, DFID’s Water KAR Project R7132. Report OD 144, Wallingford

  • Danso G, Drechsel P (2003) The marketing manager in Ghana. Urban Agric Mag 9:7

    Google Scholar 

  • Danso G, Drechsel P, Wiafe-Antwi T, Gyiele L (2002) Income of farming systems around Kumasi, Ghana. Urban Agric Magazine 7:5–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Dongus S (2000) vegetable production on open spaces in Dar es Salaam––spatial Changes from 1992 to 1999. City Farmer, Vancouver. http://www.cityfarmer.org/daressalaam.html

  • Dongus S (2001) Urban vegetable production in Dar es Salaam (Tanzania)––GIS-supported analysis of spatial changes from 1992 to 1999. In: Drescher AW, Mäckel R (eds) Use of resource niches in African ecosystems––new research results from Tanzania, the Chad and Namibia, APT-Reports 12, Freiburg, pp 100–144

  • Dongus S, Nyika D, Kannady K, Mtasiwa D, Mshinda H, Fillinger U, Drescher AW, Tanner M, Castro MC, Killeen GF (2007) Participatory mapping of target areas to enable operational larval source management to suppress malaria vector mosquitoes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Int J Health Geogr 6(1):37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dongus S, Nyika D, Kannady K, Mtasiwa D, Mshinda H, Gosoniu L, Drescher AW, Fillinger U, Tanner M, Killeen GF, Castro MC (2009) Urban agriculture and Anopheles habitats in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Geospat Health 3(2):189–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Drechsel P, Giordano M, Enters T (2005) Valuing soil fertility change: selected methods and case studies. In: Shiferaw B, Freeman HA, Swinton SM (eds) Natural resources management in agriculture: methods for assessing economic and environmental impacts. ICRISAT-CABI Publishing, Wallingford, pp 199–221

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Drechsel P, Graefe S, Sonou M, Cofie OO (2006) Informal irrigation in urban West Africa: an overview, IWMI Research Report 102. International Water Management Institute, Colombo

    Google Scholar 

  • Drechsel P, Keraita B, Amoah P, Abaidoo R, Raschid Sally L, Bahri A (2008) Reducing health risks from wastewater use in urban and peri-urban sub-Saharan Africa: applying the 2006 WHO guidelines. Water Sci Technol 57(9):1461–1466

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drescher AW, Iaquinta DK, Holmer RJ (2006) Urban homegardens and allotment gardens for sustainable livelihoods: management strategies and institutional environments In: Nair PK, Kumar B (eds) Tropical homegardens: a time tested example of sustainability. Series: Advances in Agroforestry 3, Springer, Dordrecht

  • Dubbeling M, Merzthal G (2006) Sustainable urban agriculture requires the involvement of multiple stakeholders. In: van Veenhuizen R (ed) Cities farming for the future: urban agriculture for green and productive cities, RUAF, IIRR, IDRC, Silang, pp 19–40

  • Endamana D, Kengne IM, Gockowski J, Nya J, Wandji D, Nyemeck J, Soua NN, Bakwowi JN (2003) Wastewater reuse for urban agriculture in Yaoundé, Cameroon: opportunities and constraints. Paper presented at the international symposium on water, poverty and productive uses of water at the household level, 21–23 January 2003, Muldersdrift

  • Ezedinma C, Chukuezi C (1999) A comparative analysis of urban agricultural enterprises in Lagos and Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Environ Urban 11(2):135–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foeken D, Mwangi AM (2000) Increasing food security through urban farming in Nairobi. In: Bakker N, Dubbeling M, Gündel S, Sabel-Koschella U, de Zeeuw H (eds) Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on the policy agenda, Deutsche Stiftung für internationale Entwicklung (DSE). Zentralstelle für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, Feldafing, pp 303–327

    Google Scholar 

  • Gertel J, Samir S (2000) Cairo: urban agriculture and visions for a “modern” city. In: Bakker N, Dubbeling M, Gündel S, Sabel-Koschella U, de Zeeuw H (eds) Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on the policy agenda, Deutsche Stiftung für internationale Entwicklung (DSE). Zentralstelle für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, Feldafing, pp 209–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Gockowski J, Mbazo’o J, Mbah G, Moulende TF (2003) African traditional leafy vegetables and the urban and peri-urban poor. Food Policy 28(3):221–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardoy JE, Mitlin D, Satterthwaite D (2001) Environmental problems in an urbanizing world––finding solutions for cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Earthscan, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris F (1998) Indigenous intensification of agriculture: the Kano close-settled zone. Seminar on local knowledge in tropical agricultural research and development, Tropical Agriculture Association, 26 September 1998. Anthropology Department, University Of Durham. http://www.taa.org.uk/Harrisdone.htm

  • Jacobi P, Amend J, Kiango S (2000) Urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam: providing an indispensable part of the diet. In: Bakker N, Dubbeling M, Gündel S, Sabel-Koschella U, de Zeeuw H (eds) Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on the policy agenda, Deutsche Stiftung für internationale Entwicklung (DSE). Zentralstelle für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, Feldafing, pp 257–283

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitilla MD, Mlambo A (2001) Integration of agriculture in city development in Dar es Salaam. Urban Agric Mag 4:22–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Klinkenberg E, McCall PJ, Hastings IM, Wilson MD, Amerasinghe FP, Donnelly MJ (2005) Malaria and irrigated crops, Accra, Ghana. Emerg Infect Dis 11(8):1290–1293

    Google Scholar 

  • Klinkenberg E, McCall PJ, Wilson MD, Amerasinghe FP, Donnelly MJ (2008) Impact of urban agriculture on malaria vectors in Accra, Ghana. Malaria J 7:151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • La Anyane S (1963) Vegetable gardening in Accra. The Ghana Farmer 1(6):228–230

    Google Scholar 

  • Luedeling E, Schumacher J, Gebauer J, El-Siddig K, Buerkert A (2007) Spatial expansion of urban agriculture in Khartoum, Sudan. Poster presentation, Deutscher Tropentag 2007, Kassel-Witzenhausen. http://www.tropentag.de/2007/abstracts/posters/99.pdf

  • Magigi W (2008) Improving urban land governance with emphasis on integrating agriculture based livelihoods in spatial land use planning practice in Tanzania. Ph.D. thesis, University of Freiburg

  • Mbiba B (2000) Urban agriculture in Harare: between suspicion and repression. In: Bakker N, Dubbeling M, Gündel S, Sabel-Koschella U, de Zeeuw H (eds) Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on the policy agenda, Deutsche Stiftung für internationale Entwicklung (DSE). Zentralstelle für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, Feldafing, pp 285–301

    Google Scholar 

  • Mougeot LJA (2000) Urban agriculture: definition, presence, potentials and risks. In: Bakker N, Dubbeling M, Gündel S, Sabel-Koschella U, de Zeeuw H (eds) Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on the policy agenda, Deutsche Stiftung für internationale Entwicklung (DSE). Zentralstelle für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, Feldafing, pp 1–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Moustier P (2001) Assessing the socio-economic impact of urban and peri-urban agricultural development. Urban Agric Mag 5:47–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Mubvami T, Mushamba S (2006) Integration of agriculture in urban land use planning. In: van Veenhuizen R (ed) Cities farming for the future: urban agriculture for green and productive cities, RUAF, IIRR, IDRC, Silang, pp 54–74

  • National Bureau of Statistics (2003) The 2002 population and housing census general report. Government of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam

    Google Scholar 

  • Niang S, Diop A, Faruqui N, Redwood M, Gaye M (2002) Reuse of untreated wastewater in market gardens in Dakar, Senegal. Urban Agric Mag 8:35–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Niang S, Baldé D, Dieng Y, Traoré OK, Niang Y, Fall A, Thiam A, Chaudhury N, Gueye-Girardet A, Félix J (2006) Providing the city with fresh vegetables from urban and peri-urban spaces: social and economical benefits and constraints; impacts on public health: the case of Patte d’Oie (Commune of Dakar, Senegal). Project Report, IDRC, June 2004–January 2006, Project no. 102019-003

  • Nugent RA (1999) Measuring the sustainability of urban agriculture. In: Koc M, MacRae R, Mougeot LJA, Welsh J (eds) For hunger proof cities––sustainable urban food systems. IDRC, Ottawa

    Google Scholar 

  • Obuobie E, Danso G, Drechsel P (2003) Access to land and water for urban vegetable farming in Accra. Urban Agric Mag 11:15–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Obuobie E, Keraita B, Danso G, Amoah P, Cofie OO, Raschid-Sally L, Drechsel P (2006) Irrigated urban vegetable production in Ghana: characteristics, benefits and risks. IWMI-RUAF-IDRC-CPWF, Accra

    Google Scholar 

  • Olofin EA, Tanko AI (2003) Optimizing agricultural land use in Kano. Urban Agric Mag 11:9–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Orchard J, Fereday N, Lamboll R, Schippers R (1997) Urban and peri-urban horticulture: an assessment of horticultural farming systems used by resource-poor groups in urban and peri-urban environments and the constraints, requirements and policy framework governing their activities and development. Unpublished report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham

  • Raschid-Sally L, Jayakody P (2008) Drivers and characteristics of wastewater agriculture in developing countries: results from a global assessment, IWMI Research Report 127, International Water Management Institute Colombo, Sri Lanka

  • Rogerson CM (1997) Globalization or informalization? African urban economies in the 1990s. In: Racodi C (ed) The urban challenge in Africa: growth and management of its large cities. United Nations University Press, Tokyo. http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu26ue/uu26ue0q.htm

  • Smyth AJ, Dumanski J (1993) FESLM: an international framework for evaluating sustainable land management. World Soil Resources Report 73, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Land and Water Development Division, Rome

  • UN (2008) World urbanization prospects: the 2007 revision. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, New York. http://esa.un.org/unup

  • UNDP (1996) Urban agriculture: food, jobs and sustainable cities. United nations development program, publication series for habitat II, vol 1. UNDP, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • UNFPA (2007) The State of the World Population. United Nations Population Fund, New York. http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2007/presskit/pdf/sowp2007_eng.pdf

  • Van den Berg L (2002) Urban agriculture between allotment and market gardening: contributions to the sustainability of African and Asian cities. In: Brebbia C, Martin-Duque J, Wadhwa L (eds) The sustainable city II. WIT Press, Southampton, pp 946–959

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Veenhuizen R, Danso G (2007) Profitability and sustainability of urban and peri-urban agriculture. Agricultural Management, Marketing and Finance Occasional Paper 19, FAO, Rome

  • WHO (2006) Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and grey water: wastewater use in agriculture, vol 2. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the input provided to this and earlier versions of the paper by Olufunke O. Cofie from RUAF-Ghana, Axel Drescher, Germany, Dickson Nyika, Tanzania, and Seydou Niang, Senegal. Thanks go also to the Dar es Salaam Urban Malaria Control Programme, the Ifakara Health Institute and the Urban Vegetable Promotion Project, which supported data collection for the Dar es Salaam case study. This part of the work was funded by the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) North–South and the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), P.O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka

    Pay Drechsel

  2. Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Swiss Tropical Institute, Socinstr. 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland

    Stefan Dongus

  3. Department of Physical Geography, University of Freiburg, Werthmannstr. 4, 79085, Freiburg, Germany

    Stefan Dongus

Authors
  1. Pay Drechsel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stefan Dongus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pay Drechsel.

Additional information

Edited by Mitsuru Osaki and Ademola Braimoh, Hokkaido University, Japan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Drechsel, P., Dongus, S. Dynamics and sustainability of urban agriculture: examples from sub-Saharan Africa. Sustain Sci 5, 69–78 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-009-0097-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-009-0097-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation