Abstract
The global increase in urbanization has resulted in exclusion of many carnivore species from human-altered landscapes due to a variety of anthropogenic impacts. However, despite the negative impacts of urbanization on carnivores, certain species exhibit an ability to survive within urban areas. The aim of the study was to solicit community-based information, using a questionnaire mainly, to investigate the distribution of Large-spotted Genets (Genetta tigrina) within the urban environment of the greater Durban district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and investigate their reported use of anthropogenic structures for resting, breeding and foraging. The study was also designed to determine possible areas of conflict, habitat use and residents’ attitudes towards G. tigrina. Consequently, interviews were conducted in the suburbs of Kloof and Hillcrest, KwaZulu-Natal to establish information pertaining to genet behaviour, land-use, potential wildlife conflicts and public perceptions with their presence in urban areas. Walking between areas (during foraging bouts or between roost sites) was the main activity observed. Domestic pet food was the main food item genets were observed eating. The most cited cause of genet fatalities were attacks by domestic dogs and collisions with vehicles. Genets were reported using roof spaces for resting during daylight hours and for breeding. Respondents reported providing supplementary food such as meat, chicken and pet food to urban genets. The majority of respondents expressed positive attitudes towards genets in urban Kloof. Negative views stemmed from concerns of disease transfer (RABV) and impacts on wild bird populations. This study illustrated the adaptability of genets to live in urban areas and their ability to utilise anthropogenic resources. Furthermore, the study identified various potential threats to genets in an urban environment.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baker PJ, Harris S (2007) Urban mammals: what does the future hold? An analysis of the factors affecting patterns of use of residential gardens in great Britain. Mammal Rev 37:297–315
Bateman PW, Fleming PA (2012) Big city life: carnivores in urban environments. J Zool 287(1):1–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00887.x
Beckman JP, Berger J (2003) Rapid ecological and behavioural changes in carnivores: the response of black bears (Ursus americanus) to altered food. J Zool 261(2):207–212. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0952836903004126
Beckmann JP, Lackey CW (2008) Carnivores, urban landscapes, and longitudinal studies: a case history of black bears. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2:168–174
Bishop GC, Durrheim DN, Kloeck PE, Godlonton JD, Bingham J, Speare R (2003) Rabies guide for the medical, veterinary, and allied professions. Department of Agriculture and Department of health. Government Printer, Pretoria
Coetzee P, Nel LH (2007) Emerging epidemic of dog rabies in coastal South Africa: a molecular epidemiological analysis. Virus Res 126(1-2):186–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2007.02.020
Contesse P, Hegglin D, Gloor S, Bontadina F, Deplazes P (2004) The diet of urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and the availability of anthropogenic food in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. Mamm Biol 69(2):81–95. https://doi.org/10.1078/1616-5047-00123
Eisenberg JF (1981) The mammalian radiations: an analysis of trends in evolution, adaptation, and behavior. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Evans KL, Newson SE, Gaston KJ (2009) Habitat influence on urban avian assemblages. Ibis 151(1):19–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00898.x
Fischer JD, Cleeton SH, Lyons TP, Miller JR (2012) Urbanization and the predation paradox: the role of trophic dynamics in structuring vertebrate communities. Bioscience 62(9):809–818. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.6
Francis MJ, Spooner PG, Matthews A (2015) The influence of urban encroachment on squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis): effects of road density, light and noise pollution. Wildl Res 42(4):324–333. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR14182
Frank J, Johansson M, Flykt A (2015) Public attitude towards the implementation of management actions aimed at reducing human fear of brown bears and wolves. Wildl Biol 21(3):122–130. https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.13116
Fuller TK, Biknevicius AR, Kat PW (1990) Movements and behavior of large spotted genets (Genetta maculata gray 1830) near Elmenteita, Kenya (Mammalia Viverridae). Trop Zool 3(1):13–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/03946975.1990.10539446
Gaubert P, Fernandes CA, Bruford MW, Vernon G (2004) Genets (Carnivora, Viverridae) in Africa: an evolutionary synthesis based on cytochrome b sequences and morphological characters. Biol J Linn Soc 81(4):589–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00309.x
Gaubert P, Taylor PJ, Fernandes CA, Bruford MW, Vernon G (2005) Patterns of cryptic hybridization revealed using an integrative approach: a case study on genets (Carnivora, Viverridae, Genetta spp.) from the southern African subregion. Biol J Linn Soc 86(1):11–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00518.x
Gehrt SD (2007) Ecology of coyotes in urban landscapes. Wildl Damage Manag Conf- Proc 63:303–311
Gehrt SD, Riley SPD, Cypher BL (2010) Urban carnivores. Ecology, conflict and conservation. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
Grey-Ross R, Downs CT, Kirkman K (2010) An assessment of illegal hunting on farmland in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: implications for oribi (Ourebia ourebi) conservation. S Afr J Wildl Res 40(1):43–52. https://doi.org/10.3957/056.040.0104
Harris S, Cresswell W, Reason P, Cresswell P (1992) An integrated approach to monitoring badger (Meles meles) population changes in Britain. Wildlife 2001: Populations 945–953
Harrison RL (1998) Bobcats in residential areas: distribution and homeowners attitudes. Southwest Nat 43:496–475
Heiss RS, Clark AB, McGowan KJ (2009) Growth and nutritional state of American crow nestlings vary between urban and rural habitats. Ecol Appl 19(4):829–839. https://doi.org/10.1890/08-0140.1
Herrero S (1983) Social behaviour of black bears at a garbage dump in Jasper National Park. Bears: their biology and management, Vol 5. International Association for Bear Research and Management, Madison, pp 54–70
Hoffmann CO, Gottschang JL (1977) Numbers, distribution and movements of a raccoon population in a suburban residential community. J Mammal 58(4):623–636. https://doi.org/10.2307/1380010
Holsman RH, Peyton RB (2003) Stakeholder attitudes toward ecosystem Management in Southern Michigan. Wildl Soc Bull 31:349–361
Ikeda H, Ono Y, Baba M, Doi T, Iwamoto T (1982) Ranging and activity patterns of three nocturnal viverrids in Orno National Park, Ethiopia. Afr J Ecol 20(3):179–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1982.tb00288.x
Jones DN (2003) Contemporary urban ecology: the view from the antipodes. Trans Ecol Environ 64:745–753
Kaneko Y, Maruyama N, Macdonald DW (2006) Food habits and habitat selection of suburban badgers (Meles meles) in Japan. J Zool 270:78–89
Kauhala K, Salonen L (2012) Does non-invasive method- latrine surveys- reveal habitat preferences of raccoon dogs and badgers? Mamm Biol 77(4):264–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2012.02.007
Kertson BN, Spencer RD, Marzluff JM, Hepinstall-Cymerman J, Grue CE (2011) Cougar space use and movements in the wildland-urban landscape of western Washington. Ecol Appl 21(8):2866–2881. https://doi.org/10.1890/11-0947.1
Lembo T, Hampson K, Haydon DT, Craft M, Dobson A, Dushoff J, Ernest E, Hoare R, Kaare M, Mlengeya T, Mentzel C, Cleaveland S (2008) Exploring reservoir dynamics: a case study of rabies in the Serengeti ecosystem. J Appl Ecol 45(4):1246–1257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01468.x
Loveridge AJ, Macdonald DW (2003) Niche separation in sympatric jackals (Canis mesomelas and Canis adustus). J Zool 259(2):143–153. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0952836902003114
Lowry H, Lill A, Wong BBM (2013) Behavioural responses of wildlife to urban environments. Biol Rev 88(3):537–549. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12012
Magle SB, Hunt VM, Vernon M, Crooks KR (2012) Urban wildlife research: past, present and future. Biol Conserv 155:23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.06.018
Malerczyk C, Nel LH, Gniel D, Blumberg L (2010) Rabies in South Africa and the FIFA soccer world cup. Traveller’s awareness for an endemic but neglected disease. Human Vaccines 6(5):385–389. https://doi.org/10.4161/hv.6.5.11713
Marzluff JM, Bowman R, Donnelly R (2001) A historical perspective on urban bird research: trends, terms, and approaches. In: Marzluff JM, Bowman R, Donnelly R (eds) Ecology and Conservation of Birds in an Urbanizing World. Kluwer Press, Norwell, pp 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1531-9_1
McCleery RA, Parker ID (2011) Influence of the urban environment on fox squirrel range overlap. J Zool 285(3):239–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00835.x
McIntyre NE, Knowles-Yánez K, Hope D (2000) Urban ecology as an interdisciplinary field: differences in the use of "urban" between the social and natural sciences. Urban Ecosyst 4(1):5–24. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009540018553
McKinney ML (2002) Urbanization, biodiversity and conservation. Bioscience 52:883–890
Morey PS, Gese EM, Gehrt SD (2007) Spatial and temporal variation in the diet of coyotes in the Chicago metropolitan area. Am Midl Nat 158(1):147–161. https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031(2007)158[147:SATVIT]2.0.CO;2
Mucina LR, Rutherford MC, Powrie LW (Eds) (2006) Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria
Murray MH, St Clair CC (2015) Individual flexibility in nocturnal activity reduces risk of road mortality for an urban carnivore. Behav Ecol 26(6):1520–1527. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arv102
Nel L, Jacobs J, Jaftha J, Meredith C (1997) Natural spill over of a distinctly canidae-associated biotype of rabies virus into an expanded wildlife host range in southern Africa. Virus Genes 15(1):79–82. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007979502754
Newsome SD, Ralls K, Van Horn Job C, Fogel ML (2010) Stable isotopes evaluate exploitation of anthropogenic foods by the endangered San Joaquin kit fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica). J Mammal 91(6):1313–1321. https://doi.org/10.1644/09-MAMM-A-362.1
Newsome SD, Garbe HM, Wilson EC, Gehrt SD (2015a) Individual variation in anthropogenic resource use in an urban carnivore. Oecologia 178(1):115–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-014-3205-2
Newsome SD, Dellinger JA, Pavey CR, Ripple WJ, Shores CR, Wirsing AJ, Dickman CR (2015b) The ecological effects of providing resource subsidies to predators. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 24(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12236
Nunn N, Puga D (2012) Ruggedness: the blessing of bad geography in Africa. Rev Econ Stat 94(1):20–36. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00161
Ordeñana MA, Crooks KR, Boydston EE, Fisher RN, Lyren LM, Siudyla S, Haas CD, Harris S, Hathaway SA, Turschak GM, Miles AK, Van Vuren DH (2010) Effects of urbanization on carnivore species distribution and richness. J Mammal 91(6):1322–1331. https://doi.org/10.1644/09-MAMM-A-312.1
Parker TS, Nilon CH (2012) Urban landscape characteristics correlate with the synurbanization of wildlife. Landsc Urban Plan 106(4):316–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.04.003
Pickett STA, Cadenasso ML (2008) Linking ecological and built components of urban mosaics: an open cycle of ecological design. J Ecol 96:8–12
Prange S, Gehrt SD, Wiggers EP (2003) Demographic factors contributing to high raccoon densities in urban landscapes. J Wildl Manag 67(2):324–333. https://doi.org/10.2307/3802774
Prange S, Gehrt SD, Wiggers EP (2004) Influences of anthropogenic resources on raccoon (Procyon lotor) movements and spatial distribution. J Mammal 85(3):483–490. https://doi.org/10.1644/BOS-121
Purnell RE, Peirce MA, Musoke A (1970) Carnivores as vehicles for ticks carrying disease agents: a possible role of the large-spotted genet, Genetta tigrina, in the epizootiology of east coast fever. Trop Anim Health Prod 2(2):87–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02359574
Randa LA, Yunger JA (2006) Carnivore occurrence along an urban rural gradient: a landscape-level analysis. J Mammal 87(6):1154–1164. https://doi.org/10.1644/05-MAMM-A-224R2.1
Riem JG, Blair RB, Pennington DN, Solomon NG (2012) Estimating mammalian species diversity across an urban gradient. Am Midl Nat 168(2):315–332. https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031-168.2.315
Roberts PD, Somers MJ, White RM, Nel JAJ (2007) Diet of south African large spotted genet Genetta tigrina (carnivore, Vivveridae) in a coastal dune forest. Acta Theriol 52(1):45–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03194198
Roper TJ (2010) Badger. Harper Collins, London
Rowe-Rowe DT (1992) The Carnivores of Natal. Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg
Russell TC, Bowman BR, Herbert CA, Kohen JL (2011) Suburban attitudes towards the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula and the common ringtail possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus in the northern suburbs of Sydney. Austr Zool 35(3):888–894. https://doi.org/10.7882/AZ.2011.043
Salek M, Drahnikova L, Tkadlec E (2014) Changes in home range sizes and population densities of carnivore species along the natural to urban habitat gradient. Mammal Rev 45:1–14
Saunders G, White CL, Harris S, Rayner MV (1993) Urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes): food acquisition, time and energy budgeting of a generalized predator. Symp Zool Soc Lond 65: 215–234
Savard JPL, Clergeau P, Mennechez G (2000) Biodiversity concepts in urban ecosystems. Landsc Urban Plan 48(3-4):131–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00037-2
Schultz AJ, Tingley MW, Bowie RCK (2012) A century of avian community turnover in an urban green space in northern California. Condor 114:258–267
Scott L, Balkenhol N, Hale J, Sadler J, Van der ree R (2015) Ecological connectivity research in urban areas. Funct Ecol 29: 868–878
Skinner JD, Chimimba CT (2005) The mammals of Southern Africa sub region, 3rd edn. Cambridge University Press, New York. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107340992
Soulsbury CD, White PCL (2016) Human-wildlife interactions in urban areas: a review of conflicts, benefits and opportunities. Wildl Res 42:541–553
Spacapan M (2013) Modelling perceived risk from coyotes among Chicago residents. MSc thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Chicago
Statistics South Africa (2011) Population per municipality. SS Africa. Pretoria, Cape Town: Data First
Stott I, Soga M, Inger R, Gaston KJ (2015) Land sparing is crucial for urban ecosystem services. Front Ecol Environ 13(7):387–393. https://doi.org/10.1890/140286
Tigas LA, Van Vuren DH, Sauvajot RM (2002) Behavioural responses of bobcats and coyotes to habitat fragmentation and corridors in an urban environment. Biol Conserv 108(3):299–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00120-9
White PCL, Vaughan Jennings N, Renwick AR, Barker NHL (2005) Questionnaires in ecology: a review of past use and recommendations for best practice. J Appl Ecol 42(3):421–430. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01032.x
Widdows C, Downs CT (2015) A genet drive-through: are large spotted genets using urban areas for “fast food”? A dietary analysis. Urban Ecosys 18(3):907–920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-015-0438-8
Widdows C, Downs CT (2016) Urban roost temperatures of large-spotted-genets: the effect of anthropogenic structures. J Thermal Biol 57:66–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.02.004
Widdows C, Ramesh T, Downs CT (2015) Factors affecting the distribution of large spotted genets (Genetta tigrina) in an urban environment in South Africa. Urban Ecosys 18(4):1401–1413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-015-0449-5
Yirga G, Leirs H, De Iongh HH, Asmelash T, Gebrehiwot K, Deckers J, Bauer H (2016) Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) concentrate around urban waste dumps across Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Wildl Res 42:563–569
Yirga G, Leirs H, De Iongh HH, Asmelash T, Gebrehiwot K, Vos M, Bauer H (2017) Densities of spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) and African golden wolf (Canis anthus) increase with increasing anthropogenic influence. Mamm Biol 85:60–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2017.02.004
Acknowledgments
P. Candotti of the Kloof Conservancy and H. Dennyson from the Crest magazine are thanked for publishing the article in their newsletters, magazines and newspapers. The University of KwaZulu-Natal and National Research Fund (ZA) are also thanked for financial funding. We are grateful for the constructive comments of the reviewers.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 19 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Widdows, C., Downs, C.T. Genets in the city: community observations and perceptions of large-spotted genets (Genetta tigrina) in an urban environment. Urban Ecosyst 21, 357–367 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0722-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0722-x