Skip to main content
Log in

Parenthood and Happiness: a Review of Folk Theories Versus Empirical Evidence

  • Published:
Social Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper reviews and compares folk theories and empirical evidence about the influence of parenthood on happiness and life satisfaction. The review of attitudes toward parenthood and childlessness reveals that people tend to believe that parenthood is central to a meaningful and fulfilling life, and that the lives of childless people are emptier, less rewarding, and lonelier, than the lives of parents. Most cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence suggest, however, that people are better off without having children. It is mainly children living at home that interfere with well-being, particularly among women, singles, lower socioeconomic strata, and people residing in less pronatalist societies—especially when these characteristics are combined. The discrepancy between beliefs and findings is discussed in relation to the various costs of parenting; the advantages of childlessness; adaptation and compensation among involuntarily childless persons; cognitive biases; and the possibility that parenthood confers rewards in terms of meaning rather than happiness.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In people’s minds (i.e., folk theory), global well-being is more likely referred to as happiness, hence the title.

  2. This study only records children in the home, which means that childless persons also include people who are parents but do not live with their children. This group of parents, usually men, may report relatively low well-being (e.g., Shields and Wooden 2003). Hence, the positive effect of parenthood is likely inflated for men.

  3. Whereas U.S. reviews conclude that parents are never better off than non-parents on any of the conventional measures of subjective well-being (McLanahan and Adams 1987; Mirowsky and Ross 2003), an opposite conclusion seems apparent in the Nordic literature.

References

  • Aassve, A., Goisis, A., & Sironi, M. (2009). Happiness and childbearing across Europe, Working paper no. 10. Milan, Italy: University of Dondena Centre for Research on Social Dynamics.

  • Abbey, A., Andrews, F. M., & Halman, L. J. (1994). Psychosocial predictors of life quality: How are they affected by infertility, gender, and parenthood. Journal of Family Issues, 15(2), 253–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Albert, A., & Bulcroft, K. (1988). Pets, families, and the life course. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50(2), 543–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alesina, A., Di Tella, R., & MacCulloch, R. (2004). Inequality and happiness: Are Europeans and Americans different? Journal of Public Economics, 88, 2009–2042.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, B. B., Rubinstein, R. L., Goodman, M., & Luborsky, M. (1992). A path not taken: A cultural analysis of regrets and childlessness in the lives of older women. Gerontologist, 32(5), 618–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angeles, L. (2009). Children and life satisfaction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(4), 523–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azarow, J. (2003). Generativity and well-being: An investigation of the Eriksonian hypothesis. Dissertation. Northwestern University.

  • Ball, R., & Chernova, K. (2008). Absolute income, relative income, and happiness. Social Indicators Research, 88(3), 497–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basten, S. (2009a). Pets and theneed to nurture”. The future of human reproduction, working paper #3. University of Oxford.

  • Basten, S. (2009b). Voluntary childlessness and being childfree: The future of human reproduction, working paper #5. University of Oxford.

  • Baum, F., & Cope, D. R. (1980). Some characteristics of intentionally childless wives in Britain. Journal of Biosocial Science, 12(3), 287–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Meanings of life. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becchetti, L., Ricca, E., & Pelloni, A. (2010). Children, happiness and taxation. SOEP working paper no. 230. Berlin: DIW.

  • Bergman, L. R., & Daukantaite, D. (2006). The importance of social circumstances for Swedish women’s subjective wellbeing. International Journal of Social Welfare, 15(1), 27–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernhardt, E., & Fratczak, E. (2005). Family status and subjective well-being: Comparing Poland and Sweden, IUSSP conference. France: Tours.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bielenksi, H., Borssch, G., & Wagner, A. (2002). Working time preferences in sixteen European countries. Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billari, F. C. (2009). The happiness commonality: Fertility decisions in low-fertility settings, how generations and gender shape demographic change: Towards policies based on better knowledge (pp. 7–31). New York: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjørnskov, C., Dreher, A., & Fischer, J. (2008). Cross-country determinants of life satisfaction: Exploring different determinants across groups in society. Social Choice Welfare, 30(1), 119–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blake, J. (1979). Is zero preferred? American attitudes toward childlessness. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 245–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchflower, D. G., & Oswald, A. J. (2004). Well-being over time in Britain and the USA. Journal of Public Economics, 88(7–8), 1359–1386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callan, V. J. (1983). Factors affecting early and late deciders of voluntary childlessness. Journal of Social Psychology, 119(2), 261–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callan, V. J. (1985). Perceptions of parents, voluntarily and involuntarily childless: A multidimensional scaling analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47(4), 1045–1050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callan, V. J. (1986). The impact of first birth: Married and single women preferring childlessness, one or two children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 261–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callan, V. J. (1987). The personal and marital adjustment of mothers and of voluntarily and involuntarily childless wives. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 49(4), 847–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callan, V. J., & Hennessey, J. F. (1988). The psychological adjustment of women experiencing infertility. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 61, 137–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callan, V. J., & Noller, P. (1987). Marriage and the family. North Ryde: Methuen Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campell, A., Converse, P. E., & Rodgers, W. L. (1976). The quality of American life: Perceptions, evaluations, and satisfactions. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chancey, L., & Dumais, S. A. (2010). Voluntary childlessness in marriage and family textbooks, 1950–2000. Journal of Family History, 34(2), 206–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, E. (2008). Childlessness and psychological well-being across the life course as manifested in significant life events. Dissertation. University of Southern California.

  • Clark, A. (2007). Born to be mild? Cohort effects don’t (fully) explain why well-being is U-shaped in age. Paris School of Economics and IZA.

  • Clark, A., & Georgellis, Y. (2010). Back to baseline in Britain: Adaptation in the BHPS, PSE working paper no. 02. Paris school of economics.

  • Clark, A., Diener, E., Georgellis, Y., & Lucas, R. E. (2008). Lags and leads in life satisfaction: A test of the baseline hypothesis. Economic Journal, 118(529), 222–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connidis, I. A. (2001). Family ties and aging. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connidis, I. A., & Mcmullin, J. A. (1992). Getting out of the house: The effect of childlessness on social participation and companionship in later life. Canadian Journal on Aging-Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement, 11(4), 370–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connidis, I. A., & McMullin, J. A. (1993). To have or have not: Parent status and the subjective well-being of older men and women. Gerontologist, 33(5), 630–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connidis, I. A., & McMullin, J. A. (1994). Social support in older age: Assessing the impact of marital and parent status. Canadian Journal on Aging-Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement, 13(4), 510–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connidis, I. A., & McMullin, J. A. (1999). Permanent childlessness: Perceived advantages and disadvantages among older persons. Canadian Journal on Aging-Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement, 18(4), 447–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, P., & Cowan, C. (2000). When partners become parents: The big life change for couples. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, M. J., Owen, M. T., Lewis, J. M., & Henderson, V. K. (1989). Marriage, adult Adjustment, and early parenting. Child Development, 60(5), 1015–1024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crohan, S. E. (1996). Marital quality and conflict across the transition to parenthood in African American and white couples. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58(4), 933–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crompton, R., & Lyonette, C. (2006). Work-life ‘balance’ in Europe. Acta Sociologica, 49(4), 379–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daukantaite, D., & Zukauskiene, R. (2006). Swedish and Lithuanian employed women’s subjective well-being. International Journal of Social Welfare, 15, 23–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Vaus, D. (2002). Marriage and mental health. Family Matters, 62, 26–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeOllos, I. Y., & Kapinus, C. A. (2002). Aging childless individuals and couples: Suggestions for new directions in research. Sociological Inquiry, 72(1), 72–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Di Tella, R., MacCulloch, R. J., & Oswald, A. J. (2003). The macroeconomics of happiness. Review of Economics and Statistics, 85(4), 809–827.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psycholical Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1995). Resources, personal strivings, and subjective well-being: A nomothetic and idiographic approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(5), 926–935.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dockery, A. M. (2010). Happiness, life satisfaction and the role of work: Evidence from two Australian surveys. School of economics and finance working paper no. 3. Curtin Business School, Perth.

  • Doss, B. D., Rhoades, G. K., Stanley, S. M., & Markman, H. J. (2009). The effect of the transition to parenthood on relationship quality: An 8 year prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3), 601–619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dykstra, P. A. (2006). Off the beaten track: Childlessness and social integration in late life. Research on Aging, 28, 749–767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dykstra, P. A., & Hagestad, G. O. (2007a). Childlessness and parenthood in two centuries: Different roads-different maps? Journal of Family Issues, 28(11), 1518–1532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dykstra, P. A., & Hagestad, G. O. (2007b). Roads less taken: Developing a nuanced view of older adults without children. Journal of Family Issues, 28(10), 1275–1310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dykstra, P. A., & Wagner, M. (2007). Pathways to childlessness and late-life outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28(11), 1487–1517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Easterlin, R. (2005). Building a better theory of well-being. In L. Bruni & P. Porta (Eds.), Economics and happiness. Reality and paradoxes. Oxford: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eberhard-Gran, M., Tambs, K., Opjordsmoen, S., Skrondal, A., & Eskild, A. (2004). Depression during pregnancy and after delivery: A repeated measurement study. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology, 25(1), 15–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, M. W. (1994). Happiness: Facts and myths. London: LEA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flood, L. (1997). Household, market, and nonmarket activities. Procedures and codes for the 1993 time-use survey (Vol. VI). Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University, Department of Economics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fokkema, T., & Esveldt, I. (2008). Motivation to have children in Europe. In C. Höhn, D. Avramov, & I. Kotowska (Eds.), People, population change and policies: Lessons from the population policy acceptance study (pp. 141–155). Berlin: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2000). Happiness, economy and institutions. Economic Journal, 110(466), 918–938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, D., Hechter, M., & Kanazawa, S. (1994). A theory of the value of children. Demography, 31(3), 375–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frijters, P., Johnston, D. W., & Shields, M. (2010). Happiness dynamics with quartely life event data. Scandinavian Journal of Economics (forthcoming).

  • Furstenberg, F. F. (2005). Banking on families: How families generate and distribute social capital. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 809–821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, S. K., & Gerstel, N. (2001). Connections and constraints: The effects of children on caregiving. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63(1), 265–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geist, C. (2005). The welfare state and the home: Regime differences in the domestic division of labour. European Sociological Review, 21(1), 23–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, D. (2006). Stumbling on happiness. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorchoff, S. M., John, O. P., & Helson, R. (2008). Contextualizing change in marital satisfaction during middle age: An 18 year longitudinal study. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1194–1200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gornick, J. C., & Meyers, M. K. (2008). Creating gender egalitarian societies: An agenda for reform. Politics & Society, 36(3), 313–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, E. A., & Marks, N. F. (2006). Linked lives: Adult children’s problems and their parents’ psychological and relational well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 68(2), 442–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hakim, C. (2003). Work-lifestyle choices in the 21st century: Preference theory. Oxford: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halle, T. (2002). Charting parenthood: A statistical portrait of fathers and mothers in America. Washington, DC: Child Trends.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haller, M., & Hadler, M. (2006). How social relations and structures can produce happiness and unhappiness: An international comparative analysis. Social Indicators Research, 75(2), 169–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, T. (2010). Subjective well-being in the second half of life: The influence of family and household resources. Dissertation. University of Oslo, Faculty of Medicine.

  • Hansen, T., Moum, T., & Shapiro, A. (2007). Relational and individual well-being among cohabiters and married individuals in midlife: Recent trends from Norway. Journal of Family Issues, 28(7), 910–933.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, T., Slagsvold, B., & Moum, T. (2008). Financial satisfaction in old age: A satisfaction paradox or a result of accumulated wealth? Social Indicators Research, 89(2), 323–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, T., Slagsvold, B., & Moum, T. (2009). Childlessness and psychological well-being in midlife and old age: An examination of parental status effects across a range of outcomes. Social Indicators Research, 94, 343–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haybron, D. M. (2007). Life satisfaction, ethical reflection, and the science of happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8, 99–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilgeman, C., & Butts, C. T. (2009). Women’s employment and fertility: A welfare regime paradox. Social Science Research, 38(1), 105–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilleras, P., Jorm, A. F., Herlitz, A., & Winblad, B. (2001). Life satisfaction among the very old: A survey on a cognitively intact sample aged 90 years or above. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 52(1), 71–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffenaar, P. J., van Balen, F., & Hermanns, J. (2010). The impact of having a baby on the level and content of women’s well-being. Social Indicators Research, 97(2), 279–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L. W., & Manis, J. D. (1979). The value of children in the United States: A new approach to the study of fertility. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41(3), 583–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L. W., McManus, K. A., & Brackbill, Y. (1987). The value of children to young and elderly parents. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 25(4), 309–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hook, J. L. (2006). Care in context: Men’s unpaid work in 20 countries, 1965–2003. American Sociological Review, 71(4), 639–660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., Klein, M. H., Essex, M. J., & Clark, R. (1995). Maternity leave and women’s mental health. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19(2), 257–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., Essex, M. J., Clark, R., Klein, M. H., & Byrd, J. E. (1996). Parental leave: Policy and research. Journal of Social Issues, 52(3), 91–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R., M., B., Diez-Medrano, J., Halman, L., & Luijkx, R. (2004). Human beliefs and values: A cross-cultural sourcebook based on the 19992002 values survey. México Siglo XXI Editores.

  • ISER. (2010). BHPS documentation and questionnaires. http://www.iser.essex.ac.uk/survey/bhps/documentation/volb/wave8/hindresp12.html. Accessed 16 July 2010.

  • Ishiikuntz, M., & Seccombe, K. (1989). The impact of children upon social support networks throughout the life course. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51(3), 777–790.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ISSP. (2002). Family and changing gender roles. http://www.pineforge.com/mssw3/resources/issp/issp_Codebook.pdf. Accessed 25 May 2010.

  • Jeffries, S., & Konnert, C. (2002). Regret and psychological well-being among voluntarily and involuntarily childless women and mothers. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 54(2), 89–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Josefsson, A., Berg, G., Nordin, C., & Sydsjo, G. (2001). Prevalence of depressive symptoms in late pregnancy and postpartum. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 80(3), 251–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juster, F. T. (1985). Time, goods, and well-being. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A. (2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: The day reconstruction method. Science, 306, 1776–1780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karlsen, E., Dybdahl, R., & Vitterso, J. (2006). The possible benefits of difficulty: How stress can increase and decrease subjective well-being. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47(5), 411–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keizer, R., Dykstra, P. A., & Poortman, A. (2009). Life outcomes of childless men and fathers. European Sociological Review, 26(1), 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendig, H., Dykstra, P. A., van Gaalen, R. I., & Melkas, T. (2007). Health of aging parents and childless individuals. Journal of Family Issues, 28(11), 1457–1486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerkhofs, J. (1999). Values in Russia: An introduction. In K. Malfliet (Ed.), Russia and Europe in a changing environment (pp. 49–70). Leuven, Belgium: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knoester, C., & Eggebeen, D. J. (2006). The effects of the transition to parenthood and subsequent children on men’s well-being and social participation. Journal of Family Issues, 27(11), 1532–1560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohler, H. P., Behrman, J. R., & Skytthe, A. (2005). Partner plus children = happiness? The effects of partnerships and fertility on well-being. Population and Development Review, 31(3), 407–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koropeckyj-Cox, T. (1998). Loneliness and depression in middle and old age: Are the childless more vulnerable? Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 53(6), S303–S312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koropeckyj-Cox, T. (2002). Beyond parental status: Psychological well-being in middle and old age. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 64(4), 957–971.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koropeckyj-Cox, T., & Pendell, G. (2007). Attitudes about childlessness in the United States: Correlates of positive, neutral, and negative responses. Journal of Family Issues, 28(8), 1054–1082.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koropeckyj-Cox, T., Pienta, A. M., & Brown, T. H. (2007). Women of the 1950s and the “normative” life course: The implications of childlessness, fertility timing, and marital status for psychological well-being in late midlife. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 64(4), 299–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kurdek, L. A. (1993). Nature and prediction of changes in marital quality for first-time parent and nonparent husbands and wives. Journal of Family Psychology, 3, 255–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsson, K., & Silverstein, M. (2004). The effects of marital and parental status on informal support and service utilization: A study of older Swedes living alone. Journal of Aging Studies, 18, 231–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, E., Rothman, A. D., Cobb, R. J., Rothman, M. T., & Bradbury, T. N. (2008). Marital satisfaction across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(1), 41–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lecci, L., Okun, M. A., & Karoly, P. (1994). Life regrets and current goals as predictors of psychological adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(4), 731–741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, V. G., & Borders, L. D. (1995). Life satisfaction of single middle-aged professional women. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74(1), 94–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 616–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., & Boehm, J. K. (2010). Human motives, happiness, and the puzzle of parenthood. Perspectives on Psychological Science (forthcoming).

  • Margolis, R., & Myrskyla. (2010). A global perspective on happiness and fertility. MPIDR Working paper. Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research.

  • Markowitz, F. E. (1998). The effects of stigma on the psychological well-being and life satisfaction of persons with mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 39(4), 335–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, G., & Fleming, N. (1999). Influences and consequences of well-being among Australian young people: 1980–1995. Social Indicators Research, 46(3), 301–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mastekaasa, A. (1994). Marital status, distress, and well-being: An international comparison. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 25(2), 183–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, R., & Matthews, A. M. (1986). Infertility and involuntary childlessness: The transition to non-parenthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 641–649.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P., De, St., & Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generatively and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 1003–1015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLanahan, S., & Adams, J. (1987). Parenthood and psychological well-being. Annual Review of Sociology, 13, 237–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLanahan, S., & Adams, J. (1989). The effects of children on adults psychological well-being: 1957–1976. Social Forces, 68(1), 124–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMullin, J. A., & Marshall, V. W. (1996). Family, friends, stress, and well-being: Does childlessness make a difference? Canadian Journal on Aging-Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement, 15(3), 355–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McQuillan, J., Stone, R. T., & Greil, A. L. (2007). Infertility and life satisfaction among women. Journal of Family Issues, 28(7), 955–981.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michalos, A. C. (1980). Satisfaction and happiness. Social Indicators Research, 8(4), 385–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michalos, A. C. (1985). Multiple discrepancies theory (MDT). Social Indicators Research, 16, 347–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2003). Social causes of psychological distress (2nd ed.). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers, S. M. (1997). Marital uncertainty and childbearing. Social Forces, 75(4), 1271–1289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nock, S. L. (1987). The symbolic meaning of childbearing. Journal of Family Issues, 8(4), 373–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nomaguchi, K. M., & Bianchi, S. M. (2004). Exercise time: Gender differences in the effects of marriage, parenthood, and employment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 66(2), 413–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nomaguchi, K. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2003). Costs and rewards of children: The effects of becoming a parent on adults’ lives. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65(2), 356–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NSD. (2002). Spørreundersøkelse om familie og kjønnsroller [ISSP survey on family and gender roles]. http://tinyurl.com/ydadt4h. Accessed 2 May 2010.

  • Obradovic, J., & Cudina-Obradovic, M. (2001). Number of children in the family as a predictor of parents’ life satisfaction. Drustvena Istrazivanja, 10(4–5), 685–707.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oswald, A., & Powdthavee, N. (2008a). Death, happiness, and the calculation of compensatory damages. Journal of Legal Studies, 37, 217–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oswald, A., & Powdthavee, N. (2008b). Does happiness adapt? A longitudinal study of disability with implications for economists and judges. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5), 1061–1077.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, K. (2002). Stigma management among the voluntarily childless. Sociological Perspectives, 45(1), 21–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, K. (2005). Choosing childlessness: Weber’s typology of action and motives of the voluntarily childless. Sociological Inquiry, 75(3), 372–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parr, N. (2010). Satisfaction with life as an antecedent of fertility: Partner + happiness = children? Demographic Research, 22, 635–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peiro, A. (2006). Happiness, satisfaction, and socio-economic conditions: Some international evidence. Journal of Socio-Economics, 35, 348–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pichler, F. (2006). Subjective quality of life of young Europeans. Feeling happy but who knows why? Social Indicators Research, 75(3), 419–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pillemer, K., & Suitor, J. J. (1991). Will I ever escape my child’s problems: Effects of adult children’s problems on elderly parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53(3), 585–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plagnol, A. C., & Huppert, F. A. (2010). Happy to help? Exploring the factors associated with variations in rates of volunteering across Europe. Social Indicators Research, 97(2), 157–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powdthavee, N. (2009). Putting a price tag on friends, relative, and neighbours: Using surveys of life satisfaction to value social relationships. Journal of Socio-Economics, 37(4), 1459–1480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raley, S., & Bianchi, S. (2006). Sons, daughters, and family processes: Does gender of children matter? Annual Review of Sociology, 32, 401–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, R., Gornick, J. C., & Schmitt, J. (2009). Parental leave policies in 21 countries: Assessing generosity and gender equality. Washington, DC: Center for Economic and Policy Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rempel, J. (1985). Childless elderly: What are they missing. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47(2), 343–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salmela-Aro, K., Aunola, K., Saisto, T., Halmesmaki, E., & Nurmi, J. (2006). Couples share similar changes in depressive symptoms and marital satisfaction anticipating the birth of a child. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 23(5), 781–803.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Save the children. (2010). Women on the front lines of health care. http://www.savethechildren.org/publications/state-of-the-worlds-mothers-report/SOWM-2010-Women-on-the-Front-Lines-of-Health-Care.pdf. Accessed 16 June 2010.

  • Savolainen, J., Lahelma, E., Silventionen, K., & Gauthier, A. H. (2001). Parenthood and psychological well-being in Finland: Does public policy make a difference? Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 32(1), 61–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiffrin, H. H., & Nelson, S. K. (2010). Stressed and happy? Investigating the relationship between happiness and perceived stress. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(1), 33–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnittker, J. (2008). Happiness and success: Genes, families, and the psychological effects of socioeconomic position and social support. American Journal of Sociology, 114, S233–S259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoen, R., Kim, Y. J., Nathanson, C. A., Fields, J., & Astone, N. M. (1997). Why do Americans want children? Population and Development Review, 23(2), 333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schvaneveldt, P., Young, M. H., Schvaneveldt, J. D., & Kivett, V. R. (2001). Interaction of people and pets in the family setting: A life course perspective. Journal of Teaching in Marriage & Family, 1(2), 34–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, B. (2000). Self-determination. The tyranny of freedom. American Psychologist, 55(1), 79–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, N., Kahneman, D., & Xu, J. (2006). Global and episodic reports of hedonic experience. In R. Belli, D. Alwin, & F. Stafford (Eds.), Using calendar and diary methods in life events research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seccombe, K. (1991). Assessing the costs and benefits of children: Gender comparisons among childfree husbands and wives. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53(1), 191–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shields, M., & Wooden, M. (2003). Marriage, children and subjective well-being. http://melbourneinstitute.com/hilda/Biblio/cp/conf-p01.pdf. Accessed 13 Feb 2007.

  • Smith, K. (2003). Individual welfare in the Soviet Union. Social Indicators Research, 64, 75–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A., & Williams, D. (2007). Father friendly legislation and paternal time across Western Europe. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis, 9(2), 175–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobotka, T. (2004). Childless societies? Trends and projections of childlessness in Europe and the United States. In T. Sobotka (Ed.), Postponement of childbearing and low fertility in Europe (pp. 123–154). Amsterdam: Dutch University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Somers, M. D. (1993). A comparison of voluntarily childfree adults and parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55(3), 643–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soons, J., & Kalmijn, M. (2009). Is marriage more than cohabitation? Well-being differences in 30 European countries. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 1141–1157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stack, S., & Eshleman, J. R. (1998). Marital status and happiness: A 17-nation study. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(2), 527–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanca, L. (2009). Suffer the little children: Measuring the effect of parenthood on well-being worldwide. Milan: University of Milan Bicocca. Department of Economics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, K., Edwards, L., & Hatch, B. (2003). The family report 2003: Choosing happiness?. London: Institute for Public Policy Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., & Oishi, S. (2008). Being good by doing good: Daily eudaimonic activity and well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(1), 22–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stutzer, A., & Frey, A. (2006). Does marriage make people happy or do happy people get married? Journal of Socio-Economics, 35(2), 326–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J., & Turner, R. J. (2001). A longitudinal study of the role and significance of mattering to others for depressive symptoms. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(3), 310–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, A., & Young-DeMarco, L. (2001). Four decades of trends in attitudes toward family issues in the United States: The 1960s through the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63(4), 1009–1037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toulemon, L. (1996). Very few couples remain voluntarily childless. Population, 8, 1–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Campbell, W. K., & Foster, C. A. (2003). Parenthood and marital satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65(3), 574–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umberson, D., & Gove, W. R. (1989). Parenthood and psychological well-being: Theory, measurement, and stage in the family life-course. Journal of Family Issues, 10(4), 440–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UN. (2009). Human development report 2009. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2010.

  • Van de Kaa, D. J. (2001). Fertility preferences: From changing value orientations to new behavior. Population counsil, 27, 290–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R. (1975). Is there an innate need for children? European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 495–501.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R. (1996). The study of life satisfaction. In V. E. Saris, R. Veenhoven, A. C. Scherpenzeel, & B. Bunting (Eds.), A comparative study of satisfaction with life in Europe (pp. 11–48). Eötvös: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veroff, J., Douvan, E., & Kulka, R. A. (1981). The inner American: A self-portrait from 1957 to 1976. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vittersø, J. (2004). Subjective well-being versus self-actualization: Using the flow-simplex to promote a conceptual clarification of subjective quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 65(3), 299–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, M., Schutze, Y., & Lang, F. R. (1999). Social relationships in old age. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin aging study. Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. 282–301). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wenger, G. C. (2001). Ageing without children: Rural wales. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 16(1), 79–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wenger, G. C., Dykstra, P. A., Melkas, T., & Knipscheer, K. C. P. M. (2007). Social embeddedness and late-life parenthood: Community activity, close ties, and support networks. Journal of Family Issues, 28(11), 1419–1456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, L., & Edwards, J. N. (1990). Emptying the nest and parental well-being: An analysis of national panel data. American Sociological Review, 55(2), 235–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiik, K. A., Bernhardt, E., & Noack, T. (2009). A study of commitment and relationship quality in Sweden and Norway. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 71(3), 465–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Z., & Pollard, M. S. (1998). Social support among unmarried childless elderly persons. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 53(6), 324–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Z., & Hayward, M. D. (2001). Childlessness and the psychological well-being of older persons. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56(5), 311–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, W., & Liu, G. (2007). Childlessness, psychological well-being, and life satisfaction among the elderly in China. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 22(2), 185–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I thank Britt Slagsvold, Gunhild Hagestad, and Annemette Sørensen for valuable comments and suggestions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thomas Hansen.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table 2.

Table 2 Overview of studies and results (unstandardized regression coefficients)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hansen, T. Parenthood and Happiness: a Review of Folk Theories Versus Empirical Evidence. Soc Indic Res 108, 29–64 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9865-y

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9865-y

Keywords

Navigation