Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Cross-cultural Study of Biological, Psychological, and Social Antecedents of Self-objectification in Italy and Romania

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although there is extensive documentation of the damaging psychological consequences of self-objectification, more research is needed to explain its antecedents. With the present study we (a) investigated the correlates of self-objectification by analyzing biological (age and body-mass index), psychological (self-esteem), and sociocultural dimensions (influence of mass media and significant others) in women and men; (b) examined the role of culture in self-objectification processes; and (c) tested the effect of gender as a moderator in the relationship between both psychological and sociocultural dimensions and self-objectification. A total of 770 heterosexual adults residing in Italy and Romania completed a self-reported questionnaire. Self-objectification was operationalized as Body Surveillance (BS) and Body Shame (BSH); however, because the the BS subscale was not satisfactorily reliable, our focus was restricted to BSH. The correlates of self-objectification for BSH were analyzed separately by nationality in regression models. Overall, BSH emerged as a process influenced by agents rooted in biological and psychological domains, as well as in social and cultural domains. High educational level and high self-esteem (this last particularly in men) correlated with reduced body shame for the Romanian sample, whereas within the Italian sample, the internalization of media standards and influence of significant others emerged as risk factors for body shame. Taken together, these findings underline the need to identify cross-cultural constants of self-objectification, as well as differences across contexts, in order to better understand self-objectification and to promote protective factors in specific culturally situated interventions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Figure 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Algars, M., Santtila, P., Varjonen, M., Witting, K., Johansson, A., Jern, P., et al. (2009). The adult body: How age, gender, and body mass index are related to body image. Journal of Aging and Health, 21, 1112–1132. doi:10.1177/0898264309348023.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson-Fye, E. P., & Becker, A. E. (2004). Sociocultural aspects of eating disorders. In J. K. Thompson (Ed.), Handbook of eating disorders and obesity (pp. 565–589). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychological Association. (2007). Report of the APA task force on the sexualization of girls. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report.aspx.

  • Arroyo, A., & Andersen, K. K. (2016). The relationship between mother-daughter self-objectification: Identifying direct, indirect, and conditional direct effects. Sex Roles, 74, 231–241. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0554-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, A. E., Burwell, R. A., Herzog, D. B., Hamburg, P., & Gilman, S. E. (2002). Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 509–514. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.6.509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, A. E., & Fay, K. (2006). Sociocultural issues and eating disorders. In S. Wonderlich, J. Mitchell, M. de Zwaan, & H. Steiger (Eds.), Annual Review of Eating Disorders, part 2—2006 (pp. 35–63). Oxford: Radcliffe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bilukha, O. O., & Utermohlen, V. (2002). Internalization of Western standards of appearance, body dissatisfaction and dieting in urban educated Ukrainian females. European Eating Disorders Review, 10, 120–137. doi:10.1002/erv.431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearable weight: Feminism, Western culture, and the body. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calogero, R. M. (2009). Objectification processes and disordered eating in British women and men. Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 394–402. doi:10.1177/1359105309102192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calogero, R. M. (2011). Operationalizing self-objectification: Assessment and related methodological issues. In R. M. Calogero, S. Tantleff-Dunn, & J. K. Thompson (Eds.), Self-objectification in women: Causes, consequences, and counteractions (pp. 23–39). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Calogero, R. M., Pina, A., Park, L. E., & Rahemtulla, Z. (2010). Objectification theory predicts college women’s attitudes toward cosmetic surgery. Sex Roles, 63, 32–41. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9759-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, J. D. (2012). Body image: Peer influences. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (pp. 257–263). New York: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Catina, A., & Joja, O. (2001). Emerging markets: Submerging women. In M. Nasser, M. A. Katzman, & R. A. Gordon (Eds.), Eating disorders and cultures in transition (2nd ed., pp. 103–118). East Sussex, UK: Brunner-Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • CENSIS, Centro Studi Investimenti Sociali. (2016). Women and media in Europe. Rome, Italy: Fondazione Adkins Chiti.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choma, B. L., Visser, B. A., Pozzebon, J. A., Bogaert, A. F., Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W. (2010). Self-objectification, self-esteem, and gender: Testing a moderated mediation model. Sex Roles, 63, 645–656. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9829-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, M., Lee, I.-C., Portnoy, G., Gurung, A., Khati, D., Jha, P., et al. (2009). Objectified body consciousness in a developing country: A comparison of mothers and daughters in the US and Nepal. Sex Roles, 60, 174–185. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9521-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dakanalis, A., Di Mattei, V. E., Prunas, A., Riva, G., Sarno, L., Volpato, C., et al. (2012). The objectified body: Media, psychophysical well-being and gender differences. Psicologia Sociale, 7, 261–284. doi:10.1482/37698.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dakanalis, A., & Riva, G. (2013). Mass media, body image and eating disturbances: The underline mechanism through the lens of the objectification theory. In L. B. Sams & J. A. Keels (Eds.), Handbook on body image: Gender differences, sociocultural influences and health implications (pp. 217–236). New York: Nova Science Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dakanalis, A., Zanetti, A. M., Riva, G., Colmegna, F., Volpato, C., Madeddu, F., et al. (2015). Male body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology: Moderating variables among men. Journal of Health Psychology, 20, 80–90. doi:10.1177/1359105313499198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, S., & Bridges, S. K. (2010). The drive for muscularity in men: Media influences and objectification theory. Body Image, 7, 32–38. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.08.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, S., Bridges, S. K., & Martens, M. P. (2014). The development and validation of the Male Assessment of Self-Objectification (MASO). Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 15, 78–89. doi:10.1037/a0031518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EIGE (2015). Gender Equality Index 2015. Measuring gender equality in the European Union 2005-2012. Retrieved from http://eige.europa.eu/rdc/eige-publications/gender-equality-index-2015-measuring-gender-equality-european-union-2005-2012-report.

  • Faludi, S. (1991). Backlash: The undeclared war against women. New York: Crown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forbes, G. B., Jung, J., Vaamonde, J. D., Omar, A., Paris, L., & Formiga, N. S. (2012). Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in three cultures: Argentina, Brazil, and the US. Sex Roles, 66, 677–694. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0105-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experience and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garrow, J. S., & Webster, J. (1984). Quetelet’s index (W/H2) as a measure of fatness. International Journal of Obesity, 9, 147–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavreliuc, A. (2010). Autism social, individualism autarhic şi tipare valorice transgeneraţionale în România contemporană [Social autism, autarchic individualism and transgenerational value patterns in contemporary Romania]. Psihologia socială, 26, 25–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavreliuc, A. (2012). Continuity and change of values and attitudes in generational cohorts of the post-Communist Romania. Cognition, Brain, Behaviour. An Interdisciplinary Journal, 14, 191–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gervais, S. J., Bernard, P., & Riemer, A. R. (2015). Who treats people as sex objects? Cultural orientation, social comparison, and sexual objectification perpetration. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28, 153–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gervais, S. J., Vescio, T. K., & Allen, J. (2011). When what you see is what you get: The consequences of the objectifying gaze for women and men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 5–17. doi:10.1177/0361684310386121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grabe, S., & Jackson, B. (2009). Self-objectification and depressive symptoms: Does their association vary among Asian American and White American men and women? Body Image, 6, 141–144. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.02.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, S. J. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 460–476. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, S. P., & Pritchard, M. E. (2003). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 31, 215–222. doi:10.2224/sbp.2003.31.3.215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenleaf, C. (2005). Self-objectification among physically active women. Sex Roles, 52, 51–62. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-1193-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 1–16. doi:10.1002/eat.10005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hausmann, R., Tyson, L. D., & Zahidi, S. (2009). The global gender gap 2009. Geneve, Switzerland: World Economic Forum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, P. J., McCreary, D. R., & Mills, J. S. (2007). Effects of exposure to objectified male and female media images on men's psychological well-being. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 95–102. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.8.2.95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karazsia, B. T., van Dulmen, M. H., Wong, K., & Crowther, J. H. (2013). Thinking meta-theoretically about the role of internalization in the development of body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors. Body Image, 10, 433–441. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.06.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katz-Wise, S. L., Budge, S. L., Lindberg, S. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2013). Individuation or identification? Self-objectification and the mother–adolescent relationship. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37, 366–380. doi:10.1177/0361684312468425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawler, M., & Nixon, E. (2011). Body dissatisfaction among adolescent boys and girls: The effects of body mass, peer appearance culture and internalization of appearance ideals. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 59–71. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9500-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LePage, M. L., Crowther, J. H., Harrington, E. F., & Engler, P. (2008). Psychological correlates of fasting and vigorous exercise as compensatory strategies in undergraduate women. Eating Behaviors, 9, 423–429. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2008.06.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M. P., & Smolak, L. (2010). Cultural influences on body image and the eating disorders. In W. S. Agras (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of eating disorders (pp. 223–249). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • López-Guimerà, G., Levine, M. P., Sánchez-Carracedo, D., & Fauquet, J. (2010). Influence of mass media on body image and eating disordered attitudes and behaviors in females: A review of effects and processes. Media Psychology, 13, 387–416. doi:10.1080/15213269.2010.525737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loughnan, S., Fernandez-Campos, S., Vaes, J., Anjum, G., Aziz, M., Harada, C., et al. (2015). Exploring the role of culture in sexual objectification: A seven nations study. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28, 125–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinley, N. M. (2006). Longitudinal gender differences in objectified body consciousness and weight-related attitudes and behaviors: Cultural and developmental contexts in the transition from college. Sex Roles, 54, 159–173. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9335-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinley, N. M. (2011). Feminist consciousness and objectified body consciousness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 684–688. doi:10.1177/0361684311428137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The objectified body consciousness scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181–215. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00467.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinley, N. M., & Lyon, L. A. (2008). Menopausal attitudes, objectified body consciousness, aging anxiety, and body esteem: European American women’s body experiences in midlife. Body Image, 5, 375–380. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2008.07.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mercurio, A. E., & Landry, L. J. (2008). Self-objectification and well-being: The impact of self-objectification on women’s overall sense of self-worth and life satisfaction. Sex Roles, 58, 458–466. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9357-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Midlarsky, E., & Nitzburg, G. (2008). Eating disorders in middle-aged women. The Journal of General Psychology, 135, 393–408. doi:10.3200/GENP.135.4.393-408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miner-Rubino, K., Twenge, J. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2002). Trait self-objectification in women: Affective and personality correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 147–172. doi:10.1006/jrpe.2001.2343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mîndruţ, P. (2006). Aerobics and self-asserting discourses: Mapping the gendered body in post-socialist Romania. Anthropology of East Europe Review, 24, 13–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miroiu, M. (2004a). Patriarhatele tranziţiei postcomuniste [The patriarchates of post-communist transition]. In M. Miroiu (Ed.), Drumul către autonomie. Teorii politice feministe [The way to autonomy. Feminist political theories] (pp. 214–245). Polirom: Iasi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miroiu, M. (2004b). State men, market women. The effects of left conservatism on gender politics in Romanian transition. Feminismo/s, 3, 207–234. doi:10.14198/fem.2004.3.14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miroiu, M. (2015). On women, feminism, and democracy. In L. Stan & D. Vancea (Eds.), Post-communist Romania at twenty-five. Linking past, present and future (pp. 87–107). New York: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., & Huang, Y. P. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 377–398. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, T. A., & Crowther, J. H. (2007). Sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction: Could feminist beliefs be a moderating factor? Body Image, 4, 296–308. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.04.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nanu, C., Tăut, D., & Băban, A. (2014). Why adolescents are not happy with their body image. Journal of Gender and Feminist Studies, 2, 1–20. Retrieved from http://www.analize-journal.ro/library/files/baban.pdf.

  • Nanu, C., Tăut, D., & Băban, A. (2013). Appearance esteem and weight esteem in adolescence. Are they different across age and gender? Cognition, Brain, Behaviour. An Interdisciplinary Journal, 17, 189–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasser, M. (2006). Eating disorders across cultures. Psychiatry, 5, 392–395. doi:10.1053/j.mppsy.2006.08.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noll, S. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). A mediational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 623–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2011). His biceps become him: A test of objectification theory's application to drive for muscularity and propensity for steroid use in college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 246–256. doi:10.1037/a0021398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peat, C. M., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2011). Self-objectification, disordered eating, and depression. A test of mediational pathways. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 441–450. doi:10.1177/0361684311400389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrie, T. A., Greenleaf, C., & Martin, S. (2010). Biopsychosocial and physical correlates of middle school boys’ and girls’ body satisfaction. Sex Roles, 63, 631–644. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9872-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Procopio, C. A., Holm-Denoma, J. M., Gordon, K. H., & Joiner, T. E. (2006). Two–three-year stability and interrelations of bulimotypic indicators and depressive and anxious symptoms in middle-aged women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39, 312–319. doi:10.1002/eat.20242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rathner, G. (2001). Post-communism and the marketing of the thin ideal. In M. Nasser, M. A. Katzman, & R. A. Gordon (Eds.), Eating disorders and cultures in transition (2nd ed., pp. 86–103). East Sussex: Brunner-Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Register, J. D., Katrevich, A. V., Aruguete, M. S., & Edman, J. L. (2015). Effects of self-objectification on self-reported eating pathology and depression. The American Journal of Psychology, 128, 107–113. doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.1.0107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ricciardelli, L. A., & Mellor, D. (2012). Influence of peers. In N. Rumsey & D. Harcourt (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of psychology of appearance (pp. 253–272). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ring, A. (2000). Anti-aging in the era of the older person. Women’s Health Journal, 57, 25–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robila, M., & Krishnakumar, A. (2005). Effects of economic pressure on marital conflict in Romania. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 246–251. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rollero, C. (2013). Men and women facing objectification: The effects of media models on well-being, self-esteem and ambivalent sexism. Revista de Psicología Social, 28, 373–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rollero, C. (2015). “I know you are not real”: Salience of photo retouching reduces the negative effects of media exposure via internalization. Studia Psychologica, 57, 195–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rollero, C. (2016). Bringing objectification into social relationships research: Is self-objectification harmful for authenticity? The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 19, E32. doi:10.1017/sjp.2016.34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rollero, C., & De Piccoli, N. (2015). Gender as moderator between self-objectification and perceived health: An exploratory study. Psihologia Socială, 35, 101–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Slevec, J. H., & Tiggemann, M. (2011). Predictors of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in middle-aged women. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 515–524. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., Frederick, D. A., Aavik, T., Alcalay, L., Allik, J., Anderson, D., et al. (2010). The attractive female body weight and female body dissatisfaction in 26 countries across 10 world regions: Results of the International Body Project I. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 309–325. doi:10.1177/0146167209359702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tartaglia, S., & Rollero, C. (2015). Gender stereotyping in newspaper advertisements: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46, 1103–1109. doi:10.1177/0022022115597068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tesliuc, E. D., Pop, L., & Tesliuc, C. M. (2001). Poverty and the social security system. Iasi: Polirom Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., Coovert, M. D., & Stormer, S. M. (1999a). Body image, social comparison, and eating disturbance: A covariance structure modeling investigation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 43–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999b). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., & Stice, E. (2001). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 181–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., van den Berg, P., Roehrig, M., Guarda, A. S., & Heinberg, L. J. (2004). The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 (SATAQ-3): Development and validation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 293–304. doi:10.1002/eat.10257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M. (2003). Media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Television and magazines are not the same! European Eating Disorders Review, 11, 418–430. doi:10.1002/erv.502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M. (2013). Objectification theory: Of relevance for eating disorder researchers and clinicians? Clinical Psychologist, 17, 35–45. doi:10.1111/cp.12010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Lynch, J. E. (2001). Body image across the life span in adult women: The role of self-objectification. Developmental Psychology, 37, 243–253. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.243.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Williams, E. (2012). The role of self-objectification in disordered eating, depressed mood, and sexual functioning among women a comprehensive test of objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 66–75. doi:10.1177/0361684311420250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tylka, T. L., Bergeron, D., & Schwartz, J. P. (2005). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Male Body Attitudes Scale (MBAS). Body Image, 2, 161–175. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.03.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tylka, T. L., & Sabik, N. J. (2010). Integrating social comparison theory and self-esteem within objectification theory to predict women’s disordered eating. Sex Roles, 63, 18–31. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9785-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNDP. (2016). Human Development Report 2016. Human Development for Everyone. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf.

  • Vaes, J., Paladino, P., & Puvia, E. (2011). Are sexualized women complete human beings? Why men and women dehumanize sexually objectified women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 774–785. doi:10.1002/ejsp.824.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2012). Understanding sexual objectification: A comprehensive approach toward media exposure and girls’ internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Journal of Communication, 62, 869–887. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01667.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2014). The three-step process of self-objectification: Potential implications for adolescents’ body consciousness during sexual activity. Body Image, 11, 77–80. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.10.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster, J., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). The relationship between women's body satisfaction and self-image across the life span: The role of cognitive control. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 164, 241–252. doi:10.1080/00221320309597980.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weltzin, T. E., Weisensel, N., Franczyk, D., Burnett, K., Klitz, C., & Bean, P. (2005). Eating disorders in men: Update. The Journal of Men’s Health & Gender, 2, 186–193. doi:10.1016/j.jmhg.2005.04.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our warm thanks to our colleague Silvia Testa for her valuable advice.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Torino, Via Verdi, 10, 10124, Torino, IT, Italy

    Silvia Gattino, Norma De Piccoli & Angela Fedi

  2. Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Iași, Romania

    Mihaela Boza

  3. Faculty of Psychology, University eCampus, Novedrate, CO, Italy

    Chiara Rollero

Authors
  1. Silvia Gattino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Norma De Piccoli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Angela Fedi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mihaela Boza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Chiara Rollero
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Angela Fedi.

Ethics declarations

We declare that the research we ran match all the ethical standards of the two countries involved.

We submitted the project to the Ethical Board of the University of Turin (PI) that approved it.

Conflict of Interest

This article contains no conflict of interest among the authors.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gattino, S., De Piccoli, N., Fedi, A. et al. A Cross-cultural Study of Biological, Psychological, and Social Antecedents of Self-objectification in Italy and Romania. Sex Roles 78, 325–337 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0804-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0804-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation