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Missing Women in STEM in China: an Empirical Study from the Viewpoint of Achievement Motivation and Gender Socialization

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Abstract

Although women are increasingly earning degrees in STEM, they remain under-represented in these fields. An empirical study was undertaken to explain the phenomenon of missing women in STEM in China from the viewpoint of achievement motivation and gender socialization, using data from the Third National Survey on the Social Status of Chinese Women. One-way ANOVAs were used to compare the achievement motivation and two stages of gender socialization among the male and female college students in STEM majors in China. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to examine the effects of the two stages of gender socialization on achievement motivation. Results showed that the phenomenon was due to lower achievement motivation of women than that of men in STEM majors. The gender differences were gradually shaped by two stages of gender socialization. In the social construction of gender roles, lower career expectations from parents and gender stereotypes from the culture negatively impacted women’s achievement motivation. In the internalization of gender role expectations, traditional gender role attitudes hindered the advancement of women’s achievement motivation. Therefore, an atmosphere of gender equality should be created in order to stop the outflow of women from the STEM pipeline.

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Notes

  1. In China, universities are divided into two categories: key and non-key universities. There are 151 universities, sponsored by Project 985 and Project 211, are recognized as key universities. Project 985 and Project 211 are the constructive project for founding world-class universities and key disciplinary areas in the twenty-first century conducted by the government of China. Other universities which are not sponsored by Project 985 and Project 211 are recognized as non-key universities.

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  1. Institute for Population and Development Studies, School of Public Policy and Administration, Xi’an Jiaotong University, #28, Xianning Xi Road, Xi’an, 710049, Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China

    Xueyan Yang & Chenzhuo Gao

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Appendices

Appendix 1. Items used in the questionnaire

Achievement motivation

A1 I wish I had a career, not just a job.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree.

A2 I hope I can go far in my career.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree.

A3 I have confidence in my future career development.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree.

A4 I am willing to make arduous efforts to achieve career success.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree.

A5 A sense of achievement at work is of great importance to me.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree

Career expectations from the father

B1 Do you think your father has high expectations for your future career development?

(1) I do not think my father has high expectations for my future career development.

(2) I think my father has relatively high expectations for my future career development.

(3) I think my father has very high expectations for my future career development in answer to the question.

Career expectations from the mother

C1 Do you think your mother has high expectations for your future career development?

(1) I do not think my mother has high expectations for my future career development.

(2) I think my mother has relatively high expectations for my future career development.

(3) I think my mother has very high expectations for my future career development in answer to the question.

Gender stereotypes from college teachers

D1 This major is not suitable for women.

(1) I have never heard teachers say that in college. (2) I have heard teachers say that in college.

D2 Boys have greater potential for development in this field.

(1) I have never heard teachers say that in college. (2) I have heard teachers say that in college.

D3 Boys are more suitable for science and research.

(1) I have never heard teachers say that in college. (2) I have heard teachers say that in college.

Gender stereotypes from the culture

E1 It is not important for a woman to succeed in her career.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree.

E2 A woman who is successful in business often has no femininity.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree.

E3 The personal life of a strong woman is often unhappy.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree.

E4 On the whole, a man is more suitable to be a leader than a woman.

(1) totally disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither disagree nor agree, (4) agree, (5) totally agree

Gender role attitudes

F1 A man should be career oriented, and a woman should be family oriented.

(1) totally agree, (2) agree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) disagree, (5) totally disagree.

F2 Supporting a family is the man’s responsibility.

(1) totally agree, (2) agree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) disagree, (5) totally disagree.

F3 The most important duty of a woman is to help her husband and raise their children.

(1) totally agree, (2) agree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) disagree, (5) totally disagree.

F4 The most important duty of a wife is to help her husband achieve success.

(1) totally agree, (2) agree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) disagree, (5) totally disagree.

F5 The development of a husband’s career is more important than that of his wife.

(1) totally agree, (2) agree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) disagree, (5) totally disagree

Appendix 2. SPSS PAC commands

SPSS PAC commands about one-way ANOVA

ANALYZE→COMPARE MEANS→ONE WAY ANOVA→Put ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION in DEPENDENT VARIABLE→Put GENDER in FACTOR→OK. 【For example: examining gender differences in achievement motivation】

SPSS PAC commands about multiple linear regression analysis

ANALYZE→REGRESSION→LINEAR→Put ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION in DEPENDENT VARIABLE→Put CAREER EXPECTATIONS FROM THE FATHER, CAREER EXPECTATIONS FROM THE MOTHER, GENDER STEREOTYPES FROM COLLEGE TEACHERS, and GENDER STEREOTYPES FROM THE CULTURE in INDEPENDENT VARIABLE→OK. 【For example: examining the influences of four variables (career expectations from the father, career expectations from the mother, gender stereotypes from college teachers, and gender stereotypes from the culture) on achievement motivation】.

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Yang, X., Gao, C. Missing Women in STEM in China: an Empirical Study from the Viewpoint of Achievement Motivation and Gender Socialization. Res Sci Educ 51, 1705–1723 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-019-9833-0

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