Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Protective Factors for Sexual Violence: Understanding How Trajectories Relate to Perpetration in High School

  • Published:
Prevention Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Adolescent sexual violence (SV) perpetration is a significant public health problem. Many risk factors for perpetration are known, but less is known about what protects youth from perpetration, or how protective factors change over time. This longitudinal study reports trajectories of four potential protective factors for SV perpetration (empathy, parental monitoring, social support, and school belonging) across middle and high school and examines their relationship to SV perpetration in high school. Findings reveal that youth who identified as SV perpetrators had significantly lower mean empathy scores (d =  − 0.18, 95 % CI [−0.26, −0.10]) and social support scores (d =  − 0.05, 95 % CI [−0.14, −0.03]) at the beginning of middle school than non-perpetrators. We also found that youth who identified as SV perpetrators had a quicker deceleration in parental monitoring (slopes) and empathy from middle to high school, compared to non-perpetrators. Within-sex differences emerged; significant differences in slopes were detected for school belonging between male perpetrators and male non-perpetrators (Wald test = 3.76 (1), p = .05) and between female perpetrators and female non-perpetrators (Wald test = 3.95(1), p = .04). Significant differences in slopes for empathy between female perpetrators and female non-perpetrators (Wald test = 4.76(1), p = .03) were also detected. No differences were found between male and female SV perpetrators for either empathy or school belonging. These findings have implications for the content and timing of adolescent SV prevention efforts. Intervention in adolescence, involving parents and schools in a comprehensive, multi-level approach, may be effective in preventing SV perpetration.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arthur, M. W., Hawkins, J. D., Pollard, J. A., Catalano, R. F., & Baglioni, A. J. (2002). Measuring risk and protective factors for substance use, delinquency, and other adolescent problem behaviors: The communities that care youth survey. Evaluation Review, 26, 575–601.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banyard, V. L., Cross, C., & Modecki, K. L. (2006). Interpersonal violence in adolescence: Ecological correlates of self-reported perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1314–1332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basile, K. C. (2015). A comprehensive approach to sexual violence prevention. New England Journal of Medicine, 372, 2350–2352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basile, K. C., Hamburger, M. E., Swahn, M., & Choi, C. (2013). Sexual violence perpetration by adolescents in dating versus same-sex peer relationships: Differences in associated risk and protective factors. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 14, 329–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basile, K. C., Smith, S. G., Breiding, M. J., Black, M. C., & Mahendra, R. R. (2014). Sexual violence surveillance: Uniform definitions and recommended data elements, version 2.0. Atlanta (GA): National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

  • Basile, K. C., DeGue, S., Jones, K., Freire, K., Dills, J., Smith, S. G., et al. (2016). STOP SV: A technical package to prevent sexual violence. Atlanta: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowsky, I. W., Hogan, M., & Ireland, M. (1997). Adolescent sexual aggression: Risk and protective factors. Pediatrics, 100, 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bosworth, K., & Espelage, D. (1995). Teen conflict survey. Bloomington: Center for Adolescent Studies, Indiana University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (3rd ed., pp. 74–103). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., & McMahon, R. J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychological Review, 1, 61–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Espelage, D. L. (2015). Emerging issues in school bullying research & prevention science. In E. T. Emmer & E. Sabornie (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 76–93). New York: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Espelage, D. L., Bosworth, K., & Simon, T. R. (2000). Examining the social context of bullying behaviors in early adolescence. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78, 326–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01914.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Espelage, D. L., Holt, M. K., & Henkel, R. R. (2003). Examination of peer-group contextual effects on aggression during early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 205–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00531.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Espelage, D. L., Van Ryzin, M., Low, S., & Polanin, J. (2015). Clinical trial of Second Step© middle-school Program: Impact on bullying, cyberbullying, homophobic teasing & sexual harassment perpetration. School Psychology Review, 44, 464–479. https://doi.org/10.17105/spr-15-0052.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farr, C., Brown, J., & Beckett, R. (2004). Ability to empathize and masculinity levels: Comparing male adolescent sex offenders with a normative sample of non-offending adolescents. Psychology, Crime & Law, 10, 155–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foshee, V.A., Reyes, H.L.M., Chen, M.S., Ennet, S.T., Basile, K.C., DeGue, S. Vivolo-Kantor, A. V, Moracco, K.E., & Bowling, J.M. (2016). Shared risk factors for the perpetration of physical dating violence, bullying, and sexual harassment among adolescents exposed to domestic violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence; 45, 672–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodenow, C. (1993). The Psychological Sense of School Membership among adolescents: Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools, 30, 79–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grimm, K. J., Ram, N., & Estabrook, R. (2016). Growth modeling: Structural equation and multilevel modeling approaches. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, C., & Kearl, H. (2011). Crossing the line: Sexual harassment at school. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoeve, M., Duba, J. S., Eichelsheim, V. I., Van der Laan, P. H., Smeenk, W., & Gerris, R. M. (2009). The relationship between parenting and delinquency: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 749–775.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Losel, F., & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Direct protective and buffering protective factors in the development of youth violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43, S8–S23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L., & Moulden, H. (2001). Hostility toward women and victim empathy in rapists. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 13, 249–255.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Monn, A. R. (2015). Child and family resilience: A call for integrated science, practice, and professional training. Family Relations, 64, 5–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, C. D., Robinson, A. L., & Post, L. A. (2003). The nature and predictors of sexual victimization and offending among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 465–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mestre, M. V., Samper, P., Frías, M. D., & Tur, A. M. (2009). Are women more empathetic than men? A longitudinal study in adolescence. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 12, 76–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minor, M. H., & Crimmins, C. L. S. (1995). Adolescent sex offenders: Issues of etiology and risk factors. The sex offender. In B. K. Schwartz & H. R. Cellini (Eds.), Corrections, treatment and legal practice, Vol. 1 (pp. 9.1–9.15). Kingston: Civic Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2012). Mplus user’s guide. Seventh Edition. Los Angeles: Authors.

  • Pettitt, L. M. (2004). Gender intensification of peer socialization during puberty. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2004, 23–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rinehart, S., Espelage, D. L., & Bub, K. (2017). Longitudinal effects of gendered harassment perpetration and victimization on mental health outcomes in adolescence. Advance online publication. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517723746

  • Smith, S. G., Chen, J., Basile, K. C., Gilbert, L. K., Patel, N., Merrick, M. T., Jain, A., & Walling, M. L. (2017). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010-2012 state report. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

  • Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: a reinterpretation. Journal of Child Development, 71, 1072–1085.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tharp, A. T., DeGue, S., Valle, L. A., Brookmeyer, K. A., Massetti, G. M., & Matjasko, J. L. (2013). A systematic qualitative review of risk and protective factors for sexual violence perpetration. Trauma Violence Abuse, 14, 133–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Graaff, J., Branje, S., De Wied, M., Hawk, S., Van Lier, P., & Meeus, W. (2014). Perspective taking and empathic concern in adolescence: Gender differences in developmental changes. Developmental Psychology, 50, 881–888. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034325.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaux, A. (1988). Social and emotional loneliness: The role of social and personal characteristics. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 722–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, J., & Smith, P. (2004). Sexual assault perpetration and re-perpetration: From adolescence to youth adulthood. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31, 182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (Eds.). (2004). Building school success through social and emotional learning. New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

Middle school data in this manuscript were drawn from a grant from the CDC (1U01/CE001677) to Dorothy Espelage (PI). High school data in this manuscript were drawn from a grant from the National Institute of Justice (Grant No. 2011-90948-IL-IJ) examining “Bullying, Sexual, and Dating Violence Trajectories from Early to Late Adolescence” to Dorothy Espelage (PI). Analyses and manuscript preparation was supported through an Intergovernmental Personnel Act (IPA) between University of Florida (Espelage) and the CDC (17IPA1706096).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Violence Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, NE, Mailstop F64, Atlanta, GA, 30341, USA

    Kathleen C. Basile, Whitney L. Rostad & Ruth W. Leemis

  2. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

    Dorothy L. Espelage

  3. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Jordan P. Davis

Authors
  1. Kathleen C. Basile
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Whitney L. Rostad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ruth W. Leemis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Dorothy L. Espelage
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jordan P. Davis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kathleen C. Basile.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Research Involving Human Participants

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

The findings and conclusions in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Electronic supplementary material

Table S1

(DOCX 16 kb)

Table S2

(DOCX 16 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Basile, K.C., Rostad, W.L., Leemis, R.W. et al. Protective Factors for Sexual Violence: Understanding How Trajectories Relate to Perpetration in High School. Prev Sci 19, 1123–1132 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-018-0940-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-018-0940-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation