Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Prevalence and Community Variation in Harmful Levels of Family Conflict Witnessed by Children: Implications for Prevention

  • Published:
Prevention Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Children’s reports of high family conflict consistently predict poor outcomes. The study identified criteria for high family conflict based on prospective prediction of increased risk for childhood depression. These criteria were subsequently used to establish the prevalence of high family conflict in Australian communities and to identify community correlates suitable for targeting prevention programs. Study 1 utilised a longitudinal design. Grade 6 and 8 students completed a family conflict scale (from the widely used Communities That Care survey) in 2003 and depression symptomotology were evaluated at a 1-year follow-up (International Youth Development Study, N = 1,798). Receiver-operating characteristic analysis yielded a cut-off point on a family conflict score with depression symptomatology as a criterion variable. A cut-off score of 2.5 or more (on a scale of 1 to 4) correctly identified 69 % with depression symptomology, with a specificity of 77.2 % and sensitivity at 44.3 %. Study 2 used data from an Australian national survey of Grade 6 and 8 children (Healthy Neighbourhoods Study, N = 8,256). Prevalence estimates were calculated, and multivariate logistic regression with multi-level modelling was used to establish factors associated with community variation in family conflict levels. Thirty-three percent of Australian children in 2006 were exposed to levels of family conflict that are likely to increase their future risk for depression. Significant community correlates for elevated family conflict included Indigenous Australian identification, socioeconomic disadvantage, urban and state location, maternal absence and paternal unemployment. The analysis provides indicators for targeting family-level mental health promotion programs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alvarado, R., & Kumpfer, K. (2000). Strengthening America’s families. Juvenile Justice, 7, 8–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Messer, S. C., Pickles, A., Winder, F., & Silver, D. (1995). Development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 237–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Erkanli, A., Silberg, J., Eaves, L., & Costello, E. J. (2002). Depression scale scores in 8-17-year-olds: Effects of age and gender. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 1052–1063.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arthur, M. W., Briney, J. S., Hawkins, J. D., Abbott, R. D., Brooke-Weiss, B. L., & Catalano, R. F. (2007). Measuring risk and protection in communities using the Communities That Care Youth Survey. Evaluation and Program Planning, 30, 197–211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). 2039.0–Information paper: An introduction to Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas (SEIFA). Accessed February, 2009 from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2039.

  • Barlow, J., Coren, E., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2002). Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of parenting programmes in improving maternal psychosocial health. The British Journal of General Practice, 52, 223–233.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boynton-Jarrett, R., Ryan, L. M., Berkman, L. F., & Wright, R. J. (2008). Cumulative violence exposure and self-rated health: Longitudinal study of adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics, 122, 961–970.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buehler, C., Anthony, C., Krishnakumar, A., Stone, G., Gerard, J., & Pemberton, S. (1997). Interparental conflict and youth problem behaviours: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 6, 233–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buehler, C., & O’Brien, N. (2011). Mothers’ part-time employment: Associations with mother and family well-being. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 895–906.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Demo, D. H. (1992). Parent–child relations: Assessing recent changes. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 104–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. J. (1993). An introduction to the bootstrap. New York: Chapman and Hall.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Formoso, D., Gonzales, N. A., & Aiken, L. S. (2000). Family conflict and children’s internalising and externalising behaviour: Protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 175–199.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fröjd, S., Kaltiala-Heino, R., Pelkonen, M., Von Der Pahlen, B., & Marttunenf, M. (2009). Significance of family life events in middle adolescence: A survey on Finnish community adolescents. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 63, 78–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garnefski, N., & Doets, T. (2000). Perceived social support and dysfunctioning in “clinical” and “normal” adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 753–762.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harold, G. T., Aitken, J. J., & Shelton, K. H. (2007). Inter-parental conflict and children’s academic attainment: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1223–1232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harold, G. T., & Conger, R. D. (1997). Marital conflict and adolescent distress: The role of adolescent awareness. Child Development, 68, 333–350.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hemphill, S. A., Toumbourou, J. W., Herrenkohl, T. I., McMorris, B. J., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). The effects of school suspensions and arrests on subsequent adolescent antisocial behavior in Australia and the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 736–744.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrenkohl, T. I., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., & Mason, W. A. (2009). Effects of growth in family conflict in adolescence on adult depressive symptoms: Mediating and moderating effects of stress and school bonding. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44, 146–152.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hox, J. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kish, L. (1965). Survey sampling. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuklinski, M. R., Briney, J. S., Hawkins, J. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2012). Cost-benefit analysis of communities that care: Outcomes at eighth grade. Prevention Science, 13, 150–161.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer, H. C. (1992). Evaluating medical tests: Objective and quantitative guidelines. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., Rohde, P., Gotlib, I. H., & Hops, H. (1994). Adolescent psychopathology: II. Psychosocial risk factors for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 302–315.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, N. L., & Tracy, A. J. (2009). After the baby: Work–family conflict and working mother’s psychological health Family Relations Interdisciplinary. Journal of Applied Family Studies, 58, 380–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie, D. P., Toumbourou, J. W., Forbes, A. B., Mackinnon, A. J., McMaster, B. J., Catalano, R. F., et al. (2011). Predicting future depression in adolescents using the short mood and feelings questionnaire: A two-nation study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 134, 151–159.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMorris, B. J., Hemphill, S. A., Toumbourou, J. W., Catalano, R. F., & Patton, G. C. (2006). Prevalence of substance use and delinquent behavior in adolescents from Victoria, Australia and Washington State, United States. Health Education & Behavior, 34, 634–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Messer, S. C., Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Loeber, R., Van Kammer, W., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1995). Development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents: Factor composition and structure across development. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 251–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muller, R., & Buttner, P. (1994). A critical discussion of intraclass correlation coefficients. Statistics in Medicine, 13, 2465–2476.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Natalier, K., & Hewitt, B. (2010). ‘It's not just about the money’: Non-resident fathers’ perspectives on paying child support. Sociology, 44, 489–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neighbors, B. D., Forehand, R., & Bau, J. J. (1997). Interparental conflict and relations with parents as predictors of young adult functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 169–187.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paradis, A. D., Reinherz, H. Z., Giaconia, R. M., Beardslee, W. R., Ward, K., & Fitzmaurice, G. M. (2009). Long-term impact of family arguments and physical violence on adult functioning at age 30 years: Findings from the Simmons longitudinal study. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 290–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patton, G. C., Olsson, C. A., Bond, L., Toumbourou, J. W., Carlin, J. B., Hemphill, S. A., et al. (2008). Predicting female depression across puberty: A two-nation longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1424–1432.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2008). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using Stata (2nd ed.). College Station: Stata Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F., Harold, G. T., Shelton, K. H., & Thapar, A. (2006). Family conflict interacts with genetic liability in predicting childhood and adolescent depression. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 841–848.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sallinen, M., Kinnunen, U., & Rönkä, A. (2004). Adolescents’ experiences of parental employment and parenting: Connections to adolescents’ well-being. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 221–237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, K. H., & Harold, G. T. (2008). Pathway between interparental conflict and adolescent psychological adjustment: Bridging links through children’s cognitive appraisals and coping strategies. Journal of Early Adolescence, 28, 555–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L. (1998). A longitudinal study of the relations between parent–adolescent conflict and adolescent psychological well-being. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 159, 53–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheeber, L., Hops, H., Alpert, A., Davis, B., & Andrews, J. (1996). Family support and conflict: Prospective relations to adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 333–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slep, A. M. S., & Heyman, R. E. (2008). Public health approaches to family maltreatment prevention: Resetting family psychology’s sights from the home to the community. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 518–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 83–110.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swets, J. A. (1995). Signal detection theory and ROC analysis in psychology and diagnostics: Collected papers. Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, R., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). Behavioral outcomes of Parent–child Interaction Therapy and Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A review and meta-analysis. Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 475–495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toumbourou, J. W., & Gregg, M. E. (2002). Impact of an empowerment-based parent education program on the reduction of youth suicide risk factors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31, 279–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, M. E., & Compas, B. E. (2002). Coping with family conflict and economic strain: The adolescent perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12, 243–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful for the financial support provided by the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (project number, 334304) for HNS data collection, by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01-DA012140-05) for IYDS data collection, and the National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (R01AA017188-01) and the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (project number, 491241) for funding data analysis and paper writing on the IYDS. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, or the National Institutes of Health. The authors express their appreciation and thanks to project staff and participants for their valuable contribution to the project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology and Centre for Mental Health and Wellbeing Research, Deakin University, Geelong Waterfront Campus, 1 Gheringhap Street, Geelong, VIC, 3220, Australia

    Cherine Habib, John W. Toumbourou & Martin McRitchie

  2. Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia

    John W. Toumbourou, Joanne Williams & Dean McKenzie

  3. School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC, 3110, Australia

    Peter Kremer

  4. Department of Epidemiology & Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Dean McKenzie

  5. Social Development Research Group, University of Washington, Washington, DC, USA

    Richard F. Catalano

Authors
  1. Cherine Habib
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John W. Toumbourou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Martin McRitchie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Joanne Williams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Peter Kremer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Dean McKenzie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Richard F. Catalano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cherine Habib.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Habib, C., Toumbourou, J.W., McRitchie, M. et al. Prevalence and Community Variation in Harmful Levels of Family Conflict Witnessed by Children: Implications for Prevention. Prev Sci 15, 757–766 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-013-0416-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-013-0416-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation