Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Gender and Social Rejection as Risk Factors for Engaging in Risky Sexual Behavior Among Crack/Cocaine Users

  • Published:
Prevention Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Crack/cocaine and engagement in risky sexual behavior represent important contributors to the escalation of the HIV infection among women. Several lines of research have emphasized the role of social factors in women’s vulnerability for such practices and stressed the importance of understanding such factors to better inform prevention efforts and improve their effectiveness and efficiency. However, few studies have attempted to pinpoint specific social/contextual factors particularly relevant to high-risk populations such as female crack/cocaine users. Extensive previous research has related the experience of social rejection to a variety of negative outcomes including, but not limited to, various forms of psychopathology, self-defeating, and self-harm behavior. Motivated by this research, the current study explored the role of laboratory-induced social rejection in moderating the relationship between gender and risky sexual behavior among a sample of crack/cocaine users (n = 211) at high risk for HIV. The results showed that among women, but not among men, experiencing social rejection was significantly associated with a greater number of sexual partners. Further, experiencing social rejection was not related to the frequency of condom use. Implications for future research, prevention, and treatment are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. We also ran the analysis controlling for MDD, GAD, BPD, and APD, which showed significant gender effects to explore the possibility that they may reduce the residual effects. The model containing these variables did not significantly predict our variables of interest anymore (F < 1). This is probably due to the fact that psychopathology was not related to the outcome. Furthermore, the effect of the interaction between gender and perceived social rejection on the number of partners remained significant in predicting the number of sexual partners (B = .14, t(179) = 1.63, p < .05), as did the simple effects for females (B = .19, t(179) = 1.98, p < .05), but not for male participants (B = .05, t(179) < 1).

  2. The results remained unchanged when MDD, GAD, BPD, and APD were controlled for.

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amaro, H. (1995). Love, sex, and power: Considering women’s realities in HIV prevention. American Psychologist, 50, 437–447.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ayduk, O., May, D., Downey, G., & Higgins, E. T. (2003). Tactical differences in coping with rejection sensitivity: The role of prevention pride. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 435–448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ayduk, O., Zayas, V., Downey, G., Cole, A. B., Shoda, Y., & Mischel, W. (2008). Rejection sensitivity and executive control: Joint predictors of borderline personality features. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 151–168.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baseman, J., Ross, M., & Williams, M. (1999). Sale of sex for drugs and drugs for sex: An economic context of sexual risk behaviors for STDs. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 26, 444–449.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Need-to-belong theory. In P. M. A. V. Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 121–140). Sage: Thousand Oaks.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Twenge, J. M. (2005). Social exclusion impairs self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 589–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Twenge, J. M., & Nuss, C. K. (2002). Effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes: Anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 817–827.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2004). Sexual economics: Sex as female resource for social exchange in heterosexual interactions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 339–363.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, B. L., Asher, S. J., & White, S. W. (1978). Marital disruption as a stressor: A review and analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 867–894.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bornovalova, M. A., Gwadz, M. A., Kahler, C., Aklin, W. M., & Lejuez, C. W. (2008). Sensation seeking and risk-taking propensity as mediators in the relationship between childhood abuse and HIV-related risk behavior. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 99–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bornovalova, M. A., Lejuez, C. W., Daughters, S. B., Rosenthal, M. Z., & Lynch, T. R. (2005). Impulsivity as a common process across borderline personality and substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 790–812.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bornovalova, M. A., Daughters, S. B., & Lejuez, C. W. (2010). The function of sexual contact and high-risk sexual behavior across commercial, casual, and regular partners among urban drug users: Contextual features and clinical correlates. Behavior Modification, 34, 219–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. H., Domier, C. P., & Rawson, R. A. (2005). Stimulants, sex, and gender. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 12, 169–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1990). The evolution of anxiety and social exclusion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 196–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., & Bernston, G. G. (2003). The anatomy of loneliness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 71–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catanese, K. R., & Tice, D. M. (2005). The effect or rejection on anti-social behaviors: Social exclusion produces aggressive behaviors. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 297–306). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2007). Drug-associated HIV transmission continues in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/idu.htm. Accessed Jan 2012.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2011). HIV surveillance report: Diagnoses of HIV infection and AIDS in the United States and Dependent Areas. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/statistics_2011_HIV_Surveillance_Report_vol_23.pdf. Accessed Jan 2012.

  • Chiasson, M. A., Stoneburner, R. L., Hildebrandt, D. S., & Ewing, W. E. (1991). Heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 associated with the use of smokable freebase cocaine (crack). AIDS, 5, 1121–1126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, E., Navaline, H., & Metzger, D. S. (1994). High-risk behaviors for HIV: A comparison between crack-abusing and opioid-abusing African-American women. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 26, 233–241.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: Self-construals and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 5–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darke, S., Hall, W., Heather, N., & Ward, J. (1991). The reliability and validity of a scale to measure HIV risk-taking behaviour among intravenous drug users. AIDS, 5, 181–185.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davey-Rothwell, M. A., & Latkin, C. A. (2007). HIV-related communication and perceived norms: An analysis of the connection among injection drug users. AIDS Education and Prevention, 19, 298–309.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downey, G., Freitas, A. L., Michaelis, B., & Khouri, H. (1998). The self-fulfilling prophecy in close relationships: Rejection sensitivity and rejection by romantic partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 545–560.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. In C. B. Travis (Ed.), Evolution, gender, and rape (pp. 265–304). Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In T. Eckes & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123–174). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edlin, B. R., Irwin, K. L., Faruque, S., & McCoy, C. B. (1994). Intersecting epidemics: Crack cocaine use and HIV infection among inner-city young adults. The New England Journal of Medicine, 331, 1422–1427.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrhardt, A. A., & Wasserheit, J. N. (1991). Age, gender, and sexual risk behaviors for sexually transmitted diseases in the United States. In J. N. Wasserheit, S. O. Aral, K. K. Holmes, & P. J. Hitchcock (Eds.), Research issues in human behavior and sexually transmitted diseases in the AIDS era (pp. 97–121). Washington: American Society for Microbiology.

    Google Scholar 

  • El-Bassel, N., Gilbert, L., & Rajah, V. (2003). The relationship between drug abuse and sexual performance among women on methadone. Heightening the risk of sexual intimate violence and HIV. Addictive Behaviors, 28, 1385–1403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, J. A., Klein, H., Eber, M., & Crosby, H. (2000). Frequency and intensity of crack use as predictors of women’s involvement in HIV-related sexual risk behaviors. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 58, 227–236.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inciardi, J. A. (1995). Crack, crack house sex, and HIV risk. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 24, 249–269.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jamieson, J. P., Harkins, S. G., & Williams, K. D. (2010). Need threat can motivate performance after ostracism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 690–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joe, G. W., & Simpson, D. D. (1995). HIV risks, gender, and cocaine use among opiate users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 37, 23–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Josephs, R. A., Markus, H. R., & Tafarodi, R. W. (1992). Gender and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 391–402.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kopetz, C. E., Reynolds, E. K., Hart, C. L., Kruglanski, A. W., & Lejuez, C. W. (2010). Social context and perceived effects of drugs on sexual behavior among individuals who use both heroin and cocaine. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18, 214–220.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo, I., Greenberg, A. E., Magnus, M., Phillips, G., Rawls, A., Peterson, J., et al. (2011). High prevalence of substance use among heterosexuals living in communities with high rates of AIDS and poverty in Washington, DC. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 117, 139–144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lakin, J. L., & Chartrand, T. L. (2005). Exclusion and nonconscious behavioral mimicry. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 279–295). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R. (1990). Responses to social exclusion: Social anxiety, jealousy, loneliness, depression, and low self-esteem. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 221–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, B. C. (1990). The relationship of substance use during sex to high-risk sexual behavior. Journal of Sex Research, 27, 199–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, B. C., & Stall, R. (1993). Substance use and RSB for exposure to HIV: Issues in methodology, interpretation, and prevention. American Psychologist, 48, 1035–1045.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lejuez, C. W., Bornovalova, M. A., Daughters, S. B., & Curtin, J. J. (2005). Differences in impulsivity and sexual risk behavior among inner-city crack/cocaine users and heroin users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77, 169–175.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lejuez, C. W., Bornovalova, M. A., Reynolds, E. K., Daughters, S. B., & Curtin, J. J. (2007). Risk factors in the relationship between gender and crack/cocaine. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15, 165–175.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, T. K., & Leukefeld, C. (2000). HIV risk behavior among bisexual and heterosexual drug users. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 32, 239–248.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, T. K., Cole, J., & Leukefeld, C. (2003). Gender differences in the context of sex exchange among individuals with a history of crack use. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15, 448–464.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mahalik, J. R., Morray, E. B., Coonerty-Femiano, A., Ludlow, L. H., Slattery, S. M., & Smiler, A. (2005). Development of the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory. Sex Roles, 52, 417–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). Oxford: Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouwerkerk, J. W., van Lange, P. A. M., Gallucci, M., & Kerr, N. L. (2005). Avoiding the social death penalty: Ostracism and cooperation in social dilemmas. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 539–558). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paprocki, C., Downey, G., Berenson, K., Bhushan, D., & El-Bassel, N. (2008). Rejection sensitivity, high-risk relationships, and women’s health. Paper presented at the International Association for Relationship Research, Providence, RI.

  • Pfaus, J. G. (2009). Pathways of sexual desire. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 6, 1506–1533.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Purdie, V., & Downey, G. (2000). Rejection sensitivity and adolescent girls’ vulnerability to relationship-centered difficulties. Child Maltreatment, 5, 338–349.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rawson, R. A., Washton, A., Domier, C. P., & Reiber, C. (2002). Drugs and sexual effects: Role of drug type and gender. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 22, 103–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, T. (1996). Culture, drugs and unsafe sex: Confusion about causation. Addiction, 91, 753–758.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romero-Canyas, R., Downey, G., Berenson, K., Ayduk, O., & Kang, N. J. (2010). Rejection sensitivity and the rejection-hostility link in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality, 78, 119–148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romero-Canyas, R., Downey, G., Pelayo, R., & Bashan, U. (2004). The threat of rejection triggers social accommodation in rejection sensitive men. Poster presented at the Fifth Annual Meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Austin, TX.

  • Ross, M. W., Hwang, L.-Y., Zack, C., Bull, L., & Williams, M. L. (2002). Sexual risk behaviours and STIs in drug abuse treatment populations whose drug of choice is crack cocaine. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 13, 769–774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobell, L. C., Kwan, E., & Sobell, M. B. (1995). Reliability of a drug history questionnaire (DHQ). Addictive Behaviors, 20, 233–241.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stall, R., & Leigh, B. (1994). Understanding the relationship between drug and alcohol use and risk sexual activity for HIV transmission: Where do we go from here. Addiction, 89, 131–134.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stillman, T. F., Baumeister, R. F., Lambert, N. M., Crescioni, A. W., DeWall, C. N., & Fincham, F. D. (2009). Alone and without purpose: Life loses meaning following social exclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 686–694.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tortu, S., Goldstein, M., Deren, S., Beardsley, M., Hamid, R., & Ziek, K. (1998). Urban crack users: Gender differences in drug use, HIV risk, and health status. Women & Health, 27, 177–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Stucke, T. S. (2001). If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1058–1069.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Social exclusion and the deconstructed state: Time perception, meaninglessness, lethargy, lack of emotion, and self-awareness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 409–423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Wang, G.-J., Fowler, J. S., Telang, F., Jayne, M., & Wong, C. (2007). Stimulant-induced enhanced sexual desire as a potential contributing factor in HIV transmission. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 157–160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weatherby, N. L., Shultz, J. M., Chitwood, D. D., & McCoy, H. V. (1992). Crack cocaine use and sexual activity in Miami, Florida. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 24, 373–380.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (2001). Ostracism: The power of silence. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., & Jarvis, B. (2006). Cyberball: A program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance. Behavior Research Methods, 38, 174–180.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 748–762.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., Govan, C. L., Croker, V., Tynan, D., Cruickshank, M., & Lam, A. (2002). Investigations into differences between social and cyberostracism. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6, 65–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: Effects of being excluded and ignored. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 279–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, W., Christensen, P., Hebl, M. R., & Rothgerber, H. (1997). Conformity to sex-typed norms, affect, and the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 523–535.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Institute of Drug Abuse grant R01DA19405 awarded to Carl W. Lejuez and F32DA026253 awarded to Catalina Kopetz.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, 2103 Cole Field House, College Park, 20742, USA

    Catalina Kopetz, Alison Pickover, Jessica F. Magidson, Jessica M. Richards, Derek Iwamoto & C. W. Lejuez

  2. Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

    Catalina Kopetz

Authors
  1. Catalina Kopetz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alison Pickover
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jessica F. Magidson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jessica M. Richards
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Derek Iwamoto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. C. W. Lejuez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Catalina Kopetz.

Additional information

Jessica Magidson, Jessica Richards, and Alison Pickover are not at UMD anymore, but were here when the research was conducted and the manuscript was prepared.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kopetz, C., Pickover, A., Magidson, J.F. et al. Gender and Social Rejection as Risk Factors for Engaging in Risky Sexual Behavior Among Crack/Cocaine Users. Prev Sci 15, 376–384 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-013-0406-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-013-0406-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation