Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The effects of small particles on soil seismic liquefaction resistance: current findings and future challenges

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Natural Hazards Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The natural and artificial sand soils always incorporate other small particles, which makes the soil liquefaction resistance difficult to predict. The particle size may change from 10−5 m (e.g., fine particles) to 10−8 m (e.g., ultrafine particles), and the soil behaviors change dramatically when such particles are present. Newly reported soil liquefaction cases involving fine particles provide great challenges to seismic design codes. To make it clear, this paper reviewed effects of small particles on soil liquefaction in three different types. The non-low plastic fines (5–75 μm), clay particles (0.1–5 μm), and ultrafine particles (1–100 nm) are discussed, respectively. Many scholars found that liquefaction resistance decreased at first but increased as fine particles (non-low plastic fines or clay particles) were added. This phenomenon can be attributed to the lubrication effect of fine particles. However, when particles in nanometer scale, the strong bond between particles and hydration adsorption of nano-suspension improve liquefaction resistance. There are still many challenges to understanding the roles of small particles in liquefaction, for example, determining relative density for a high fine content, determining particle shape effect (e.g., aspect ratio, flatness, and particle roundness), as well as the long-term reinforcement performance of ultrafine particles. In engineering practice, it suggests that the seismic design codes address the effects of non-plastic fines in laboratory tests. As for some new liquefaction mitigation methods by ultrafine particles, we believe that the standard penetration test may not be appropriate to evaluate soil improvement effect, because the test results cannot reflect the properties change of pore water.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abedi M, Yasrobi SS (2010) Effects of plastic fines on the instability of sand. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 30(3):61–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (2006a) Standard test methods for maximum index density and unit weight of soils using a vibratory table. ASTM D4253-2006, West Conshohocken

  • American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (2006b) Standard test methods for minimum index density and unit weight of soils and calculation of relative density. ASTM D4254-00, West Conshohocken

  • American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (2011) Standard classification of soils for engineering purposes. ASTM D2487-2011, West Conshohocken

  • Andrews DC, Martin GR (2000) Criteria for liquefaction of silty soils. In: Proceedings of 12th world conference on earthquake engineering. NZ Soc. for EQ Engrg, Upper Hutt

  • Belkhatir M, Schanz T, Arab A (2013) Effect of fines content and void ratio on the saturated hydraulic conductivity and undrained shear strength of sand–silt mixtures. Environ Earth Sci 70(6):2469–2479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beroya MAA, Aydin A, Katzenbach R (2009) Insight into the effects of clay mineralogy on the cyclic behavior of silt-clay mixtures. Eng Geol 106(3–4):154–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya S, Hyodo M, Goda K, Tazoh T, Taylor CA (2011) Liquefaction of soil in the Tokyo Bay area from the 2011 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 31(11):1618–1628

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bol E, Onalp A, Arel E, Sert S, Ozocak A (2010) Liquefaction of silts: the Adapazari criteria. Bull Earthq Eng 8(4):859–873

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulanger RW, Idriss I (2006) Liquefaction susceptibility criteria for silts and clays. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132(11):1413–1426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulanger RW, Idriss IM (2012) Probabilistic standard penetration test-based liquefaction-triggering procedure. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 138(10):1185–1195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bray JD, Sancio RB (2006) Assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132(9):1165–1177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cetin KO, Seed RB, Der Kiureghian A, Tokimatsu K, Harder LF, Kayen RE, Moss RES (2004) Standard penetration test-based probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction potential. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 130(12):1314–1340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang WJ, Hong ML (2008) Effects of clay content on liquefaction characteristics of gap-graded clayey sands. Soils Found 48(1):101–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang SY, Liu L, Asher SA (1994) Preparation and properties of tailored morphology, monodisperse colloidal silica–cadmium sulfide nanocomposites. J Am Chem Soc 116:6739–6744

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen H, Shi M, Guo Z (2012) Comparative analysis on soil engineering classifications of China and America. Glob Geol 15(3):210–215

    Google Scholar 

  • Cubrinovski M, Rees S, Bowman E (2009) Effects of non-plastic fines on liquefaction resistance of sandy soils. Geotech Geol Earthq Eng 17:125–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dai BB, Yang J, Zhou CY (2015) Observed effects of interparticle friction and particle size on shear behavior of granular materials. Int J Geomech 16(1):04015011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dejong JT, Mortensen BM, Martinez BC, Nelson DC (2010) Bio-mediated soil improvement. Ecol Eng 36:197–210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derakhshandi M, Rathje EM, Hazirbaba K, Mirhosseini SM (2008) The effect of plastic fines on the pore pressure generation characteristics of saturated sands. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 28(5):376–386

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • El Hosri MS, Biarez H, Hicher PY (1984) Liquefaction characteristics of silty clay. In: Proceedings of 8th world conference on earthquake Engrg. ASCE, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, pp 277–284

  • El Howayek A, Bobet A, Johnston CT, Santagata M, Sinfield JV (2014) Microstructure of sand-laponite-water systems using Cryo-SEM. In: Proceedings of the 2014 geo-congress 2014 geo-characterization and modeling for sustainability. pp 693–702

  • El Mohtar CS, Clarke J, Bobet A, Santagata M, Drnevich V, Johnston C (2008) Cyclic response of a sand with thixotropic pore fluid. Geotech Earthq Eng Soil Dyn IV:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • El Mohtar CS, Bobet A, Santagata MC, Johnston CT, Drnevich VP (2013) Liquefaction mitigation using bentonite suspensions. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 139(8):1369–1380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher PM, Mitchell JK (2002) Influence of colloidal silica grout on liquefaction potential and cyclic undrained behavior of loose sand. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 22(9):1017–1026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher PM, Conlee CT, Rollins KM (2007a) Full-scale field testing of colloidal silica grouting for mitigation of liquefaction risk. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 133(2):186–196

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher PM, Pamuk A, Abdoun T (2007b) Stabilization of liquefiable soils using colloidal silica grout. J Mater Civ Eng 19(1):33–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Georgiannou V, Burland J, Hight D (1990) The undrained behaviour of clayey sands in triaxial compression and extension. Geotechnique 40(3):431–449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghahremani M, Ghalandarzadeh A (2006) Effect of plastic fines on cyclic resistance of sands. Geotech Spec Publ 150:406

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert N (2009) Nanoparticle safety in doubt. Nature 460:937

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham D, Elton D (2011) A new method of reducing liquefaction susceptibility through pore water modification. In: Proceedings of advances in geotechnical engineering. ASCE, pp 1785–1794

  • Gratchev IB, Sassa K, Fukuoka H (2006a) How reliable is the plasticity index for estimating the liquefaction potential of clayey sands. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132(1):124–127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gratchev IB, Sassa K, Osipov VI, Sokolov VN (2006b) The liquefaction of clayey soils under cyclic loading. Eng Geol 86(1):70–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gratchev IB, Sassa K, Osipov VI, Fukuoka H, Wang G (2007) Undrained cyclic behavior of bentonite–sand mixtures and factors affecting it. Geotech Geol Eng 25(3):349–367

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo T, Prakash S (1999) Liquefaction of silts and silt–clay mixtures. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 125(8):706–710

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heng C, He M, Qiu Y (2001) Experimental study of liquefaction resistant characteristics of clayey sand. J Eng Geol 9(4):339–344 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang Y, Jiang XM (2010) Field-observed phenomena of seismic liquefaction and subsidence during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Nat Hazards 54(3):839–850

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang Y, Wang L (2016a) Laboratory investigation of liquefaction mitigation in silty sand using nanoparticles. Eng Geol 204:23–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang Y, Wang L (2016b) Experimental studies on nanomaterials for soil improvement: a review. Environ Earth Sci 75(6):497

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang Y, Wen ZQ (2015) Recent developments of soil improvement methods for seismic liquefaction mitigation. Nat Hazards 76(3):1927–1938

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang Y, Yu M (2013) Review of soil liquefaction characteristics during major earthquakes of the twenty first century. Nat Hazards 65(3):2375–2384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang JH, Yang CW (2001) Verification of critical cyclic strength curve by Taiwan Chi–Chi earthquake data. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 21(3):237–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Japan Road Association (2002) Specifications for highway bridges part V: seismic design. Maruzen Publishing Co, Ltd, Tokyo

    Google Scholar 

  • Juang CH, Li DK (2007) Assessment of liquefaction hazards in Charleston quadrangle, South Carolina. Eng Geol 92(1):59–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karim ME, Alam MJ (2014) Effect of non-plastic silt content on the liquefaction behavior of sand–silt mixture. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 65:142–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiviranta L, Kumpulainen S (2011) Quality control and characterization of bentonite materials (No. POSIVA-WR–11-84) Posiva Oy

  • Kodaka T, Ohno Y, Takyu T (2005) Cyclic shear characteristics of treated sand with colloidal silica grout. In: Proceedings of the international conference on soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering. Aa Balkema Publishers, vol 16(2), pp 401

  • Koester JP (1993) Effects of fines type and content on liquefaction potential of low-to-medium plasticity fine-grained soils. In: National earthquake conference. Central United States Earthquake Consortium, Memphis, pp 67–75

  • Kroon M, Vos WL, Wegdam GH (1998) Structure and formation of a gel of colloidal disks. Phys Rev E 57:1962

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Construction of China (2010) Code for seismic design of buildings (GB 50011–2010). China Building Industry Press, Beijing (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Water Resources of China (2007) Soil engineering classification standard (GB/T50145-2007). China Planning Press, Beijing (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Nabeshima Y, El Mesmary M, Matsui T (2002) Effect of non-plastic fines on liquefaction characteristics of sandy soils under cyclic loading. In: Proceedings of the twelfth (2002) international offshore and polar engineering conference, Kitakyushu

  • National Science and Technology Council (2007) The national nanotechnology initiative—strategic plan. Executive Office of the President of the United States, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberdörster G, Oberdörster E, Oberdörster J (2005) Nanotoxicology: an emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ Health Perspect 113:823–839

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Otterstedt JE, Brandreth DA (1998) Small particles technology. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Polito CP, Martin JR (2001) Effects of non-plastic fines on the liquefaction resistance of sands. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 127(5):408–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polito CP, Green RA, Lee J (2008) Pore pressure generation models for sands and silty soils subjected to cyclic loading. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 134(10):1490–1500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rugg D, Yoon J, Hwang H, El Mohtar CS (2011) Undrained shearing properties of sand permeated with a bentonite suspension for static liquefaction mitigation. In: Proceedings of the Geofrontiers, Dallas. pp 677–686

  • Sadek S, Saleh M (2007) The effect of carbonaceous fines on the cyclic resistance of poorly graded sands. Geotech Geol Eng 25(2):257–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seed HB, Idriss IM (1982) Ground motions and soil liquefaction during earthquakes. Monograph. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland

    Google Scholar 

  • Seed HB, Tokimatsu K, Harder L, Chung RM (1985) Influence of SPT procedures in soil liquefaction resistance evaluations. J Geotech Eng 111(12):1425–1445

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seed RB, Cetin KO, Moss E, Kammerer AM, Wu J, Pestana JM, Riemer MF, Sancio RB, Bray JD, Kayen RE (2003) Recent advances in soil liquefaction engineering: a unified and consistent framework. In: Proceedings of the 26th annual ASCE Los Angeles geotechnical spring seminar, Long Beach

  • Service RF (2003) American Chemical Society meeting. Nanomaterials show signs of toxicity. Science 300(5617):243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh S (1996) Liquefaction characteristics of silts. Geotech Geol Eng 14(1):1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stamatopoulos CA (2010) An experimental study of the liquefaction resistance of silty sands in terms of the state parameter. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 30(8):662–678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tan CS, Marto A, Leong TK, Teng LS (2013) The role of fines in liquefaction susceptibility of sand matrix soils. Electron J Geotech Eng L 18:2355–2368

    Google Scholar 

  • Thevanayagam S (1998) Effect of fines and confining stress on steady state strength of silty sands. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng ASCE 124(6):479–491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thevanayagam S (2000) Liquefaction potential and undrained fragility of silty soils. In: Proceedings of the 12th world conference on earthquake engineering, Auckland

  • Tokinatsu K, Yoshimi Y (1983) Empirical correlation of soil liquefaction based on SPT N-value and fines content. Soil Found 23(4):56–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troncoso JH (1990) Failure risks of abandoned tailings dams. In: Proceedings of international symposium on safety and rehabilitation of tailing dams. International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, pp 82–89

  • Turan A, Hinchberger SD, Naggar MHE (2009) Mechanical characterization of an artificial clay. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135:280–290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. EPA (2004) Air quality criteria for particulate matter. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Washington. Vol 3, 600/P-95-001Cf

  • Valencia GA, Moraes ICF, Hilliou LHG, Lourenço RVD, Amaral Sobral PJ (2015) Nanocomposite-forming solutions based on cassava starch and laponite: viscoelastic and rheological characterization. J Food Eng 166:174–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang WS (1979) Some findings in soil liquefaction research report. Water Conservancy and Hydroelectric Power Scientiific Research Institute, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Wei LM, Yang J (2014) On the role of grain shape in static liquefaction of sand–fines mixtures. Géotechnique 64(9):740–745

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu CJ, Ye GL, Zhang LL, Bishop D, Wang JH (2015) Depositional environment and geotechnical properties of Shanghai clay: a comparison with Ariake and Bangkok clays. Bull Eng Geol Env 74(3):717–732

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xenaki VC, Athanasopoulos GA (2003) Liquefaction resistance of sand–silt mixtures: an experimental investigation of the effect of fines. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 23(3):183–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang J, Luo XD (2015) Exploring the relationship between critical state and particle shape for granular materials. J Mech Phys Solids 84:196–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang J, Wei LM (2012) Collapse of loose sand with the addition of fines: the role of particle shape. Géotechnique 62(12):1111–1125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Youd TL, Idriss IM, Andrus RD, Arango I, Castro G, Christian JT, Dobry R, Finn WDL, Harder LF, Hynes ME, Ishihara K, Koester JP, Liao SSC, Marcuson WF, Martin GR, Mitchell JK, Moriwaki Y, Power MS, Robertson PK, Seed RB, Stokoe KH (2001) Liquefaction resistance of soils: Summary report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998. NCEER/NSF workshops on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 127(10):817–833

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41625011 and 41372355).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geotechnical Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China

    Yu Huang & Liuyuan Zhao

  2. Key Laboratory of Geotechnical and Underground Engineering of the Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China

    Yu Huang

Authors
  1. Yu Huang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Liuyuan Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yu Huang.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Huang, Y., Zhao, L. The effects of small particles on soil seismic liquefaction resistance: current findings and future challenges. Nat Hazards 92, 567–579 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3212-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3212-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation