Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Assessment of Attention in Preschoolers

  • Review
  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In the past two decades, there has been an increased interest in the assessment and treatment of preschool children presenting with concerns about attention problems. This article reviews the research and clinical literature involving assessment of attention and related skills in the preschool years. While inattention among preschoolers is common, symptoms alone do not necessarily indicate a disorder, and most often represent a normal variation in typical preschool child development. Thus, accurate identification of “disordered” attention in preschoolers can be challenging, and development of appropriate, norm-referenced tests of attention for preschoolers is also difficult. The current review suggests that comprehensive assessment of attention and related functions in the preschool child should include thorough review of the child’s history, planned observations, and formal psychometric testing. The three primary methods of psychometric assessment that have been used to characterize attentional functioning in preschool children include performance-based tests, structured caregiver interviews, and rating scales (parent, teacher, and clinician). Among performance-based methods for measurement of attention in the preschool years, tests have been developed to assess sustained attention, selective (focused) attention, span of attention (encoding/manipulation), and (top-down) controlled attention—including freedom from distractibility and set shifting. Many of these tests remain experimental in nature, and review of published methods yields relatively few commercially available, nationally normed tests of attention for preschoolers, and an overall dearth of reliability and validity studies on the available measures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abikoff, H. B., Vitiello, B., Riddle, M. A., Cunningham, C., Greenhill, L. L., Swanson, J. M., et al. (2007). Methylphenidate effects on functional outcomes in the Preschoolers with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Treatment Study (PATS). Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17, 581–592.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and profiles. Burlington: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akinbami, L. J., Liu, X., Pastor, P. N., & Reuben, C. A. (2011). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children aged 5–17 years in the United States, 1998–2009. NCHS data brief, 70. Hyattsville: National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Pediatrics. (2000). Clinical practice guideline: diagnosis and evaluation of the child with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 105, 1158–1170.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Pediatrics (2011). Policy statement: media use by children younger than 2 years. Pediatrics, 128, doi:10.1542/peds.2011-1753.

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: Author.

  • American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, Fourth Edition. Text Revision. Washington, DC: Author.

  • American Psychiatric Association (2012, May 1). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. DSM-5 Development Website (www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=383). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Armstrong, M. B., & Nettleton, S. K. (2004). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and preschool children. Seminars in Speech and Language, 25, 225–232.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arons, B. S., Katz-Leavy, J., Wittig, A. C., & Wayne Holden, E. (2002). Too young for ADHD: the potential role of systems of care. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23(1 Suppl), S57–S63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2011a). Executive functioning and self-regulation: integration, extended phenotype, and clinical implications. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2011b). The Barkley deficits in executive functioning scale: rating scales, norms, and interpretive guide. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, I. S., Kerns, K. A., Muller, U., Ahronovich, M. D., & Litman, F. (2011). Executive functions in extremely low birth weight and late preterm preschoolers: effects on working memory and response inhibition. Neuropsychology. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.631906.

  • Bayley, N. (2006). Bayley scales of infant and toddler development-third edition. San Antonio: Harcourt Assessment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berwid, O., Curko Kera, E. A., Marks, D. J., Santra, A., Bender, H. A., & Halperin, J. M. (2005). Sustained attention and response inhibition in young children at risk for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 1219–1229.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., & Faraone, S. V. (2002). Current concepts on the neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 6(Suppl. 1), S7–S16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Monuteaux, M. C., Mick, E., Parcell, T., Westerberg, D., & Faraone, S. V. (2008). The longitudinal course of comorbid oppositional defiant disorder in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: findings from a controlled 5-year prospective longitudinal follow-up study. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 6, 501–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birmaher, B., Ehman, M., Axelson, D. A., Goldstein, B. I., Monk, K., Kalas, C., et al. (2009). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children (K-SADS-PL) for the assessment for preschool children - a preliminary psychometric study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43, 680–686.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Black, I. B., DiCicco-Bloom, E., & Dreyfus, C. F. (1990). Nerve growth factor and the issue of mitosis in the nervous system. Current Topics in Developmental Biology, 24, 161–192.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2012). Child development in the context of adversity: experiential canalization of brain and behavior. American Psychologist, 67, 309–318.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bor, W., Sanders, M. R., & Markie-Dadds, C. (2002). The effects of the Triple P Positive Parenting Program on preschool children with co-occurring disruptive behavior and attentional/hyperactive difficulties. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 571–587.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. New York: Pergammon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brocki, K. C., & Bohlin, G. (2004). Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: a dimensional and developmental study. Deveopmental Neuropsychology, 26, 571–593.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brocki, K. C., Randall, K. D., Bohlin, G., & Kerns, K. A. (2008). Working memory in school-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder combined type: are deficits modality specific and are they independent of impaired inhibitory control? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30, 749–759.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bussing, R., Mason, D. M., Bell, L., Porter, P., & Garvan, C. (2010). Adolescent outcomes of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a diverse community sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 595–605.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, J. M., Bawden, H. N., Beattie, T. L., & DeWolfe, N. A. (2000). Preschoolers classified as having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): DSM-IV symptom endorsement pattern. Journal of Child Neurology, 15, 533–538.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, J. M., DeWolfe, N. A., & Bawden, H. N. (1998). Assessment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschoolers. Child Neuropsychology, 4, 49–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christakis, D. A., Zimmerman, F. J., DiGiuseppe, D. L., & McCarty, C. A. (2004). Early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. Pediatrics, 113, 708–713.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christophersen, E. R., & Mortweet, S. L. (2003). Treatments that work with children: empirically supported strategies for managing childhood problems. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chronis-Tuscano, A., Molina, B. S., Pelham, W. E., Applegate, B., Dahlke, A., Overmyer, M., & Lahey, B. B. (2010). Very early predictors of adolescent depression and suicide attempts in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 1044–1051.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Columbo, J. (2001). The development of visual attention in infancy. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 337–367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Columbo, J., & Cheatham, C. L. (2006). The emergence and basis of endogenous attention in infancy and early childhood. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 34, 283–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K. (2001). Conners’ Kiddie Continuous Performance Test (K-CPT). North Tonawanda: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K. (2009). Conners early childhood. North Tonawanda: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K., & Staff, M. H. S. (2000). Conners’ Continuous Performance Test-II (CPT-II). North Tonawanda: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connor, D. F. (2002). Preschool attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review of prevalence, diagnosis, neurobiology, and stimulant treatment. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, S1–S9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conway, A., & Stifter, C. A. (2012). Longitudinal antecedents of executive function in preschoolers. Child Development, 83, 1022–1036.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooley, E. L., & Morris, R. D. (1990). Attention in children: a neuropsychologically based model for assessment. Developmental Neuropsychology, 6, 239–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corkum, V., Byrne, J. M., & Ellsworth, C. (1995). Clinical assessment of sustained attention in preschoolers. Child Neuropsychology, 1, 3–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeBar, L. L., Lynch, F., Powell, J., & Gale, J. (2003). Use of psychotropic agents in preschool children: associated symptoms, diagnoses, and health care services in a health maintenance organization. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 157, 150–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Beers, S. R., Hall, J., Frustaci, K., Masalehdan, A., et al. (2001). Sex differences in brain maturation during childhood and adolescence. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 552–557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dennis, M., Sinopoli, K. J., Fletcher, J. M., & Schachar, R. (2008). Puppets, robots, critics, and actors within a taxonomy of attention in developmental disorders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 673–690.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeWolfe, N. A., Byrne, J. M., & Bawden, H. N. (1999). Early clinical assessment of attention. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 13, 458–473.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. (2002). Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemistry. In D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 466–503). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. J., Anastopoulos, A. D., & Reid, R. (1998). ADHD rating scale-IV. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egger, H., & Angold, A. (2004). The preschool age psychiatric assessment (PAPA): A structured parent interview for diagnosing psychiatric disorders in preschool children. In R. DelCarmen-Wiggins & A. Carter (Eds.), Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental health assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egger, H. L., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., Potts, E., Walter, B. K., & Angold, A. (2006). Test-retest reliability of the preschool age psychiatric assessment (PAPS). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 538–549.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, H. L., Kondo, D., & Angold, A. (2006). The epidemiology and diagnostic issues in preschool attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review. Infants and Young Children, 19, 109–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, C. D. (2007). Differential ability scales (2nd ed.). San Antonio: Harcourt Assessment, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eme, R. F. (1992). Selective female affliction in the developmental disorders of childhood: a review. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 354–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Espy, K. A. (2004). Using developmental, cognitive, and neuroscience approaches to understand executive control in young children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 379–384.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finneran, D., Francis, A., & Leonard, L. (2009). Sustained attention in children with specific language impairment (SLI). Journal of Speech, Lanuage, and Hearing Research, 52, 915–929.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, P., & Lucas, C. (2006). Diagnostic interview schedule for children (DISC-IV)-young child. New York: Columbia University.

  • Fox, N. A., Schmidt, L. A., Henderson, H. A., & Marshall, P. (2007). Developmental psychophysiology: Conceptual and methodological issues. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, & G. G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed., pp. 453–481). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Froehlich, T. E., Lanphear, B. P., Epstein, J. N., Barbaresi, W. J., Katusic, S. K., & Kahn, R. S. (2007). Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a national sample of US children. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 857–864.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gadow, K. D., Sprafkin, J., & Nolan, E. E. (2001). DSM-IVSymptoms in community and clinic preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1383–1392.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galera, C., Cote, S. M., Bouvard, M. P., Pingault, J., Melchoir, M., Michel, G., Boivin, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2011). Early risk factors for hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention from 17 months to 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 1267–1275.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghuman, J. K., Aman, M. G., Ghuman, H. S., Reichenbacher, T., Gelenberg, A., Wright, R., Rice, S., & Fort, C. (2009). Prospective, naturalistic, pilot study of open-label atomoxetine treatment in preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 19, 155–166.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghuman, J. K., Ginsburg, G. S., Subramaniam, G., Ghuman, H. S., Kau, A. S., & Riddle, M. A. (2001). Psychostimulants in preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: clinical evidence from a developmental disorders institution. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 516–524.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Rajapakse, J. C., Vaituzis, A. C., Liu, H., et al. (1999). Development of the human corpus callosum during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 23, 571–588.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gimpel, G. A., & Kuhn, B. R. (2000). Maternal report of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in preschool children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 26, 163–176. discussion 176–169.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., et al. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 8174–8179.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, E., & Costa, L. D. (1981). Hemispheric differences in the acquisition and use of descriptive systems. Brain and Language, 14, 144–173.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gopin, C.B., Berwid, O., Mark, D.J., Mlodnicka, A., Halperin, J.M. (2012). ADHD preschoolers with and without ODD: do they act differently depending on degree of task engagement/reward? Journal of Attention Disorders, (published online Feb 8 prior to publication).

  • Gopin, C., Healey, D., Castelli, K., Marks, D., & Halperin, J. M. (2010). Usefulness of a clinician rating scale in identifying preschool children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 13, 479–488.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M., McClure, F. D., & Post, E. M. (1986). Interpretive guide to the Gordon diagnostic system. Syracuse, NY: Gordon Systems.

  • Gordon, M., & Mettelman, B. B. (1987). Technical guide to the Gordon diagnostic system. Syracuse, NY: Gordon Systems, Inc.

  • Gottlieb, G. (1991). Experiential canalization of behavioral development: theory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 4–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenhill, L. L., Muniz, R., Ball, R. R., Levine, A., Pestreich, L., & Jiang, H. (2006). Efficacy and safety if dexmethylphenidate extended-release capsules in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 817–823.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenhill, L. L., Posner, K., Vaughan, B. S., & Kratochvil, C. J. (2008). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschool children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Clinics of North America, 17, 347–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurevitz, M., Geva, R., Varon, M., & Leitner, Y. (2012). Early markers in infants and toddlers for development of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054712447858.

  • Hagelthorn, K. M., Hiemenz, J. R., Pillion, J. P., & Mahone, E. M. (2003). Age and performance parameters in continuous performance tests for preschoolers. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 96(3 Pt 1), 975–989.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halperin, J. M., Bedard, A. V., & Curchack-Lichtin, J. T. (2012a). Preventive interventions for ADHD: a neurodevelopmental perspective. Neurotherapeutics. doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0123-z.

  • Halperin, J. M., Marks, D. J., Bedard, A. V., Chacko, A., Curchack, J. T., Yoon, C. A., & Healy, D. M. (2012b). Training executive, attention, and motor skills: a proof-of-concept study in preschool children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054711435681.

  • Halperin, J. M., & Schulz, K. P. (2006). Revisiting the role of the prefrontal cortex in the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 560–581.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, G. W., & Ottinger, D. R. (1992). The performance of hyperactive and control preschoolers on a new computerized measure of visual vigilance: the preschool vigilance task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 1365–1372.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Healey, D., Miller, C., Castelli, K., Marks, D., & Halperin, J. (2008). The impact of impairment criteria on rates of ADHD diagnoses in preschoolers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 771–778.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hood, B. M., & Atkinson, J. (1993). Disengaging visual attention in the infant and adult. Infant Behavior & Development, 16, 405–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huttenlocher, P. R., & Dabholkar, A. S. (1997). Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 387, 167–178.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jané, M. C., Canals, J., Ballespí, S., Viñas, F., Esparó, G., & Domènech, E. (2006). Parents and teachers reports of DSM-IV psychopathological symptoms in preschool children: differences between urban-rural Spanish areas. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41, 386–393.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K., Daley, D., Hutchings, J., Bywater, T., & Eames, C. (2008). Efficacy of the incredible years programme as an early intervention for children with conduct problems and ADHD: long-term follow-up. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34, 380–390.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kadesjo, C., Kadesjo, B., Hagglof, B., & Gillberg, C. (2001). ADHD in Swedish 3- to 7- year old children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1021–1028.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadesjo, C., Hagglof, B., Kadesjo, B., & Gillberg, C. (2003). Attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional defiant disorder in 3- to 7-year-old children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 45, 693–699.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katsuki, F., & Constantinidis, C. (2012). Early involvement of prefrontal cortex in visual bottom-up attention. Nature Neuroscience, 15, 1160–1166.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., et al. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (2004). Kaufman assessment battery for children-II. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K., & Rondeau, L. (1998). Development of a continuous performance test for preschool children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 2, 229–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinney, H. C., Brody, B. A., Kloman, A. S., & Gilles, F. H. (1988). Sequence of central nervous system myelination in human infancy II: patterns of myelination in autopsied infants. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 47, 217–234.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiselev, S., Espy, K. A., & Sheffield, T. (2009). Age-related differences in reaction time task performance in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102, 150–166.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knudsen, E. I. (2007). Fundamental components of attention. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30, 57–78.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (1998). NEPSY clinical and intrepretative manual. San Antonio: Harcourt Assessment, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (2007). NEPSY: second edition clinical and interpretive manual. San Antonio: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotrla, K. J., & Weinberger, D. R. (2000). Developmental neurobiology. In B. J. Sadock & V. A. Sadock (Eds.), Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry (7th ed., pp. 32–40). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kratochvil, C. J., Vaughan, B. S., Stoner, J. A., Daughton, J. M., Lubberstedt, B. D., et al. (2011). A double blind, placeob-controlled study of atomoxetine in young children with ADHD. Pediatrics, 127, e862–e868.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraybill, J. H., & Bell, M. A. (2012). Infant predictors of preschool and post-kindergarten executive function. Developmental Psychobiology. doi:10.1002/dev.21057.

  • Lachter, J., Forster, K. I., & Ruthruff, E. (2004). Forty-five years after Broadbent (1958): still no identification without attention. Psychological Review, 111, 880–913.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Chronis, A., Massetti, G., Kipp, H., Ehrhardt, A., & Lee, S. S. (2006). Predictive validity of ICD-10 hyperkenetic disorder relative to DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among younger children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 472–479.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Kipp, H., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S. S., et al. (2004). Three-year predictive validity of DSM-IV attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children diagnosed at 4–6 years. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 2014–2020.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, J. C., Mahone, E. M., Mason, E. B. A., & Schraf, S. M. (2011). The effects of napping on cognitive function in preschoolers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 32, 90–97.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, D. M., & Pearson, D. A. (1982). The development of selective attention. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 28, 317–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavigne, J. V., LeBailly, S. A., Hopkins, J., Gouze, K. R., & Binns, H. J. (2009). The prevalence of ADHD, ODD, depression, and anxiety in a community sample of 4-year-olds. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38, 315–328.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lenroot, R. K., Gogtay, N., Greenstein, D. K., Wells, E. M., Wallace, G. L., Clasen, L. S., et al. (2007). Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence. Neuroimaging, 36, 1065–1073.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillard, A. S., & Peterson, J. (2011). The immedicate impact of different types of television on young children’s executive function. Pediatrics, 128, 644–649.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luna, B., Thulborn, K. R., Munoz, D. P., Merriam, E. P., Carver, K. E., Minshew, N. J., & Sweeney, J. A. (2001). Maturation of widely distributed brain function subserves cognitive development. NeuroImage, 13, 786–793.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahone, E. M. (2005). Measurement of attention and related functions in the preschool child. Mental Retardation Developmental Disabilities Research Review, 11, 216–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahone, E. M., & Hoffman, J. (2007). Behavior ratings of executive function among preschoolers with ADHD. Clinical Neuropsychology, 21, 569–586.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahone, E. M., Pillion, J. P., & Hiemenz, J. R. (2001). Initial development of an auditory continuous performance test for preschoolers. Journal of Attention Disorders, 5, 93–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahone, E. M., Pillion, J. P., Hoffman, J., Hiemenz, J. R., & Denckla, M. B. (2005). Construct validity of the auditory continuous performance test for preschoolers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 27, 11–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mahone, E. M., & Slomine, B. S. (2008). Neurodevelopmental disorders. In J. Morgan & J. Ricker (Eds.), Textbook of clinical neuropsychology (pp. 105–127). New York: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mariani, M. A., & Barkley, R. A. (1997). Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 13, 111–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, D. J., Berwid, O. G., Santra, A., Kera, E. C., Cyrulnik, S. E., & Halperin, J. M. (2005). Neuropsychological correlates of ADHD symptoms in preschoolers. Neuropsychology, 19, 446–455.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, R., Gerber, A. J., & Peterson, B. S. (2008). Neuroimaging studies of normal brain development and their relevance for understanding childhood neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1233–1251.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Massetti, G. M., Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S. S., & Kipp, H. (2007). Academic achievement over 8 years among children who met modified criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder at 4–6 years of age. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 399–410.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGee, R., Partridge, F., Williams, S., & Silva, P. A. (1991). A twelve-year follow-up of preschool hyperactive children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 224–232.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGoey, K. E., DuPaul, G. J., Haley, E., & Shleton, T. L. (2007). Parent and teacher ratings of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in preschool: the ADHD rating scale-IV preschool version. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29, 269–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrath, A. M., Handwerk, M. L., Armstrong, K. J., Lucas, C. P., & Friman, P. C. (2004). The validity of the ADHD section of the diagnostic interview for children. Behavioral Modification, 28, 349–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mirsky, A. F., Anthony, B. J., Duncan, C. C., Ahern, M. B., & Kellam, S. G. (1991). Analysis of the elements of attention: a neuropsychological approach. Neuropsychology Review, 2, 109–145.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morasch, K. C., & Bell, M. A. (2011). The role of inhibitory control in behavioral and physiological expressions of toddler executive function. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 593–606.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mrzljak, L., Uylings, H. B., Van Eden, C. G., & Judas, M. (1990). Neuronal development in human prefrontal cortex in prenatal and postnatal stages. Progress in Brain Research, 85, 185–222.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muller, U., Kerns, K. A., & Konkin, K. (2012). Test-retest reliability and practice effects of executive function tasks in preschool children. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26, 271–287.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newborg, J., Stock, J. R., & Wnek, L. (1988). The manual for the Battell Developmental Inventory. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Goldsmith, H. H., & Sachek, J. (2004). Temperament and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the development of a multiple pathway model. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 42–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolan, E. E., Gadow, K. D., & Sprafkin, J. (2001). Teacher reports of DSM-IV ADHD, ODD, and CD symptoms in schoolchildren. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 241–249.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noland, J. S., Singer, L. T., Short, E. J., Minnes, S., Arendt, R. E., Kirchner, H. L., & Bearer, C. (2005). Prenatal drug exposure and selective attention in preschoolers. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 429–438.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nomura, Y., Marks, D. J., Grossman, B., Yoon, M., Loudon, H., Stone, J., & Halperin, J. M. (2012). Exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus and low socioeconomic status: effects on neurocognitive development and risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in offspring. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166, 337–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palfrey, J. S., Levine, M. D., Walker, D. K., & Sullivan, M. (1985). The emergence of attention deficits in early childhood: a prospective study. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 6, 339–348.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pauli-Pott, U., & Becker, K. (2011). Neuropsychological basic deficits in preschoolers at risk for ADHD: a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 626–637.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pavuluri, M. N., Luk, S. L., & McGee, R. (1999). Parent reported preschool attention deficit hyperactivity: measurement and validity. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 8, 126–133.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, S. E., & Posner, M. I. (2012). The attention system of the human brain: 20 years after. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 35, 73–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pliszka, S. R. (2007). Pharmacologic treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: efficacy, safety, and mechanisms of action. Neuropsychology Review, 17, 61–72.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poblano, A., & Romero, E. (2006). ECI-4 screening of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and co-morbidity in Mexican preschool children. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria, 64, 932–936.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Posner, K., Melvin, G. A., Murray, D. W., Gugga, S. S., Fisher, P., Skrobala, A., et al. (2007). Clinical presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in preschool children: the Preschoolers with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Treatment Study (PATS). Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17, 547–562.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Posner, M. I., & Peterson, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25–42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prather, P. A., Sarmento, N., & Alexander, A. (1995). Development of vigilance in preschoolers [Abstract]. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 1, 153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pribram, K. H., & McGuinness, D. (1975). Arousal, activation, and effort in the control of attention. Psychological Review, 2, 116–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pulsifer, M. B., Butz, A. M., O’Reilley Foran, M., & Belcher, H. M. E. (2008). Prenatal drug exposure: effects on cognitive functioning at 5 years of age. Clinical Pediatrics, 47, 58–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rappley, M., Eneli, I., & Mullan, P. (2002). Patterns of psychotropic medication use in very young children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 23–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport, M. D., Scanlan, S. W., & Denney, C. B. (1999). Attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder and scholastic achievement: a model of dual developmental pathways. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 1169–1183.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C., & Kamphaus, R. (2004). Behavior assessment system for children-2. Circle Pines: American Guidance Systems, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rezazadeh, S. M., Wilding, J., & Cornish, K. (2011). The relationship between measures of cognitive attention and behavioral ratings of attention in typically developing children. Child Neuropsychology, 17, 197–208.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Root, R. W., II, & Resnick, R. J. (2003). An update on the diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, 34–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, A. S., & Nelson, E. B. (2008). Assessing the effect of docosahexaenoic acid on cognitive functions in healthy, preschool children: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Clinical Pediatrics, 47, 355–362.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, P., Eckstrand, K., Sharp, W., Blumenthal, J., Lerch, J. P., Greenstein, D., et al. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 19649–19654.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, T., & Barkley, R. (1993). Assessment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in young children. In J. Culbertson & D. Willis (Eds.), Testing young children (pp. 290–318). Austin: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Short, E. J., Manos, M. J., Findling, R. L., & Schubel, E. A. (2004). A prospective study of stimulant response in preschool children: insights from ROC analyses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 251–259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smidts, D. P., & Oosterlaan, J. (2007). How common are symptoms of ADHD in typically developing preschoolers? a study on prevalence rates and prenatal/demographic risk factors. Cortex, 43, 710–717.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Koerting, J., Smith, E., McCann, D. C., & Thompson, M. (2011). Early detection and intervention for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Reviews Neurotheapeutics, 11, 557–563.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Welcome, S. E., Henkenius, A. L., Toga, A. W., & Peterson, B. S. (2003). Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet, 362, 1699–1707.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sprafkin, J., & Gadow, K. D. (1996). Early childhood symptom inventories. Stony Brook: Checkmate Plus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sprafkin, J., Volpe, R. J., Gadow, K. D., Nolan, E. E., & Kelly, K. (2002). A DSM-IV-referenced screening instrument for preschool children: the early childhood inventory-4. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 604–612.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stefanatos, G. A., & Baron, I. S. (2007). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a neuropsychological perspective toward DSM-V. Neuropsychology Review, 17, 5–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J., Greenhill, L., Wigal, T., Kollins, S., Stehli, A., Davies, M., et al. (2006). Stimulant-related reductions of growth rates in the PATS. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1304–1313.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tandon, M., Xuemei, S., & Luby, J. (2011). Preschool onset ADHD: course and predictors of stability over 24 m. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 21, 321–330.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, M. J., Laver-Bradbury, C., Ayres, M., Le Poidevin, E., Mead, S., Dodds, C., et al. (2009). A small scale randomized controlled trial of the revised new forest parenting programme for preschoolers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. European Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 605–616.

  • Thorell, L. B. (2007). Do delay aversion and executive function deficits make distinct contributions to the functional impact of ADHD symptoms? a study of early academic skill deficits. Journal of Child Psychological Psychiatry, 48, 1061–1070.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitiello, B., Abikoff, H. B., Chuang, S. Z., Kollins, S. H., McCracken, J. T., Riddle, M. A., et al. (2007). Effectiveness of methylphenidate in the 10-month continuation phase of the Preschoolers with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Treatment Study (PATS). Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17, 593–604.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wahlstedt, C., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2008). ADHD symptoms and executive function impairment: early predictors of later behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 33, 160–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisen, S. (2008). Clinical use of the Differential Abilities Scales-second edition (DAS-II) for children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder [Abstract]. Dissertation Abstracts International, Section B: Sciences and Engineering, 69(6-B), 3863.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, R. F., Campbell, R., Echeverria, D., Knox, S. S., & Janulewicz, P. (2009). Assessment of neuropsychological trajectories in longitudinal population-based studies of children. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 63(suppl 1), i15–i26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilding, J., Munir, F., & Cornish, K. (2001). The nature of attentional differences between groups of children differentiated by teacher ratings of attention and hyperactivity. British Journal of Psychology Bulletin, 92, 357–371.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Brown, S., Monuteaux, M., Prince, J., & Spencer, T. J. (2002). Patterns of psychopathology and dysfunction in clinically referred preschoolers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23(1 Suppl), S31–S36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Brown, S., Tanguay, S., Monuteaux, M. C., Blake, C., & Spencer, T. J. (2002). Psychiatric comorbidity and functioning in clinically referred preschool children and school-age youths with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 262–268.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M. T., Pek, J., Greenberg, M. G., et al. (2012). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9641-8.

  • Yochman, A., Ornoy, A., & Parush, S. (2006). Co-occurrence of developmental delays among preschool children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 48, 483–488.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Youngwirth, S. D., Harvey, E. A., Gates, E. C., Hashim, R. L., & Friedman-Weieneth, J. L. (2007). Neuropsychological abilities of preschool-aged children who display hyperactivity and/or oppositional defiant behavior problems. Child Neuropsychology, 13, 422–443.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health Grants R01 HD068425, P30 HD 24061 (Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center), the Johns Hopkins Brain Sciences Institute, and the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, an NIH/NCRR CTSA Program, UL1-RR025005.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neuropsychology, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 1750 E. Fairmount Ave, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA

    E. M. Mahone & H. E. Schneider

  2. Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA

    E. M. Mahone

Authors
  1. E. M. Mahone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H. E. Schneider
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to E. M. Mahone.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Mahone, E.M., Schneider, H.E. Assessment of Attention in Preschoolers. Neuropsychol Rev 22, 361–383 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9217-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9217-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation