Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Bridging In-school and Out-of-school Learning: Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education

  • Published:
Journal of Science Education and Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present paper thoroughly examines how one can effectively bridge in-school and out-of-school learning. The first part discusses the difficulty in defining out-of-school learning. It proposes to distinguish three types of learning: formal, informal, and non-formal. The second part raises the question of whether out-of-school learning should be dealt with in the in-school system, in view of the fact that we experience informal learning anyway as well as considering the disadvantages and difficulties teachers are confronted with when planning and carrying out scientific fieldtrips. The voices of the teachers, the students, and the non-formal institution staff are heard to provide insights into the problem. The third part discusses the cognitive and affective aspects of non-formal learning. The fourth part presents some models explaining scientific fieldtrip learning and based on those models, suggests a novel explanation. The fifth part offers some recommendations of how to bridge in and out-of-school learning. The paper closes with some practical ideas as to how one can bring the theory described in the paper into practice. It is hoped that this paper will provide educators with an insight so that they will be able to fully exploit the great potential that scientific field trips may offer.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, D. (1994). The effect of pre-orienting year eight students to the informal learning environment of a science museum on cognitive learning. Unpublished master’s thesis, Queensland University of Technology

  • Ansbacher T. (1998) John Dewey’s experience and education: Lessons for museums. Curator 41:36–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, R., and Melear, C. T. (1998). Increased learning of physical science concepts via multimedia exhibit compared to hands-on exhibit in a science museum. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, San Diego, CA

  • Blatchford, P. (1992). Children's attitudes to work at 11 years. Educational Studies 18: 107–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Borun M., Dritsas J. (1997) Developing family-friendly exhibits. Curator 40:178–196

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnett J. R., Lucas K. B., Doley J. H. (1996) Small group behavior in a novel field environment: Senior science students visit a marine theme park. Australian Science Teachers’ Journal 42:59–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Champagne D. W. (1975) The Ontario Science Center in Toronto: Some impressions and some questions. Educational Technology 15(8):36–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox-Petersen A. M., Marsh D. D., Kisiel J., Melber L. M. (2003) Investigation of guided school tours, student learning, and science reform recommendations at a museum of natural history. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 40(2):200–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowley K., Callanan M. A. (1998) Identifying and supporting shared scientific reasoning in parent–child interactions. Journal of Museum Education 23:12–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalya, M., and Hermanson, K. (1995). Intrinsic motivation in museums: What makes visitors want to learn? Museum News 74: 34–37, 59–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Dierking L. D. (1991) Learning theories and learning style: An overview. Journal of Museum Education 16:4–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Falk J. H. (1983) Field trips: A look at environmental effects on learning. Journal of Biological Education 17:137–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Falk J. H., Balling J. D. (1982) The field trip milieu: Learning and behavior as a function of contextual events. Journal of Educational Research 76:22–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Falk J. H., Dierking L. D. (2000) Learning from museums: Visitors experiences and their making of meaning. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Falk J. H., Koran J. J. Jr., Dierking L. D. (1986) The things of science: Assessing the learning potential of science museums. Science Education 70:503–508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falk J. H., Storksdieck M. (2005) Using the contextual model of learning to understand visitor learning from a science center exhibition. Science Education 89(5):1–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fensham, P. J. (1997). School science and its problems with scientific literacy. In Levinson, R., and Thomas, J. (Eds.), Science today: Problem or crisis? Routledge, London, pp. 119–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Gable (Ed.) (1994). The hand book of research on science teaching and learning, National Teachers Science Association Macmillan Publishing Company NY

  • Gardner H. (1983) Frames of mind. Basic Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner H. (1991) The unschooled mind. Basic Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner H. (1993) Multiple intelligences: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerber B. L., Marek E. A., Cavallo A. M. L. (2001) Development of an informal learning opportunities assay. International Journal of Science Education 23(6):569–583

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Germann P. J. (1988) Development of the attitude toward science in school assessment and its use to investigate the relationship between science achievement and attitude toward science in school. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 25:689–703

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert J., Priest M. (1997) Models and discourse: A primary school science class visit to a museum. Science Education 81:749–762

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin J. (2004) Research on students and museums: Looking more closely at the students in school groups. Science Education 88(11):S59–S70

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin J., Symington D. (1997) Moving from task-oriented to learning-oriented strategies on school excursions to museums. Science Education 81:763–779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guberman, S. R., and Van Dusen, A. (2001). Children’s investigations in a science center. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, Seattle

  • Hall, R., and Schaverien, L. (2001). Families’ participation in young children’s science and technology learning. Science Education 85(4): 454–481

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey H. W. (1951) An experimental study of the effects of field trips upon the development of scientific attitudes in a 9th grade general science class. Science Education 35:242–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hein G. E. (1998) Learning in the museum. Routledge, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodson, D., and Freeman, P. (1983). The effect of primary science on interest in science: Some research problems. Research in Science and Technological Education 1: 109–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstein A., Rosenfeld S. (1996) Bridging the gap between formal and informal science learning. Studies in Science Education 28:87–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis T., Pell A. (2002) The effect of the challenger experience on elementary children’s attitudes to science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 39:979–1000

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis T., Pell A. (2005) Factors influencing elementary school children’s attitudes toward science before, during and after a visit to the UK National Space Center. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 42(1):53–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kisiel, J. (2005). Understanding elementary teacher motivations for science fieldtrips. Science Education 89(6):936–955

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kubota C., Olstad R. (1991) Effects of novelty-reducing preparation on exploratory behavior and cognitive learning in a science museum. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 28:225–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lam-Kan, K. S. (1985). The contributions of enrichment activities towards science interest and science achievement. Unpublished master’s thesis, National University of Singapore

  • Lucas A. M. (1983) Scientific literacy and informal learning. Studies in Science Education 10:1–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas K. B. (2000) One teacher’s agenda for a class visit to an interactive science center. Science Education 84:524–544

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maarschalk J. (1988) Scientific literacy and informal science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 25(2):135–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Medrich E. A., Roizen J., Rubin V., Buckley S. (1982) The serious business of growing up. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Musgrove, F., and Batcock, A. (1969). Aspects of swing from science. British Educational Psychology 39: 320–325

    Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council (1996) National science education standards. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Orion N. (1993) A model for the development and implementation of field trips as an integral part of the science curriculum. School Science and Mathematics 93(6):325–331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orion N., Hofstein A. (1994) Factors that influence learning during a scientific field trip in a natural environment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 31(10):1097–1119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parkyn M. (1993) Scientific imaging. Museums Journal 93(10):29–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedretti, E. (2002). T. Kuhn meets T. Rex: Critical conversations and new directions in science centres and science museums. Studies in Science Education 37: 1–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and knowledge, Edinburgh Press, Edinburgh, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahm J. (2004) Multiple modes of meaning-making in a science center. Science Education 88(2):223–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramey-Gassert, L. (1996). Same place, different experiences: Exploring the influence of gender students’science museum experiences. International Journal of Science Education 18: 903–912

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramey-Gassert L., Walberg. H. J. III, Walberg H. J. (1994) Re-examining connections: Museums as science learning environments. Science Education 78:345–363

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rennie L. J. (1994) Measuring affective outcomes from a visit to a science education centre. Research in Science Education 24:261–269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rennie L. J., McClafferty T. P. (1996) Science centres and science learning. Studies in Science Education 27:53–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Rennie L. J., Williams G. F. (2002) Science centers and scientific literacy: Promoting a relationship with science. Science Education 86:706–726

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick L. B. (1987) Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher 16:13–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riley, D., Kahle, J. B. (1995). Exploring students’ constructed perceptions of science through visiting particular exhibits at a science museum. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching San Francisco, CA

  • Shortland M. (1987) No business like show business. Nature 328:213–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon J. (1993) Reception and rejection of science knowledge: Choice, style and home culture. Public Understanding of Science 2:111–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon J. (1994) Towards a notion of home culture: Science education in the home. British Education Research Journal 20:565–577

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon J. (2003) Home-school learning of science: The culture of homes, pupils’ difficult border crossing. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 40(2):219–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson J. (1994) Getting to grips. Museums Journal 94(5):30–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Storksdieck M. (2001) Differences in teachers’ and students’ museum field-trip experiences. Visitor Studies Today 4(1):8–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamir P. (1990) Factors associated with the relationship between formal, informal, and nonformal science learning. Journal of Environmental Education 2(2):34–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Tunnicliffe S. D. (1997) School visits to zoos and museums: A missed educational opportunity?. International Journal of Science Education 19(9):1039–1056

    Google Scholar 

  • Tunnicliffe S. D. (2000) Conversations of family and primary school groups at robotic dinosaur exhibits in a museum: What do they talk about?. International Journal of Science Education 22(7):739–754

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky L. (1978) Mind in society; the development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinburgh, M. (1995). Gender differences in student attitudes towards science: A meta-analysis of the literature from 1970–1991. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 32: 387–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Windschitl, M. (2002). Framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: An analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. Review of Educational Research 72(2): 131–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolins I. S., Jensen N., Ulzheimer R. (1992) Children’s memories of museum field trips: A qualitative study. Journal of Museum Education 17:17–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Wymer, P. (1991). Never mind the science, feel the experience. New scientist October: 49

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Science and Technology Education, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, 84105, Beer Sheva, Israel

    Haim Eshach

Authors
  1. Haim Eshach
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Haim Eshach.

Additional information

This paper appears as a chapter in: Eshach, H. (2006). Science Literacy in Primary Schools and Pre-Schools, Netherlands: Springer.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Eshach, H. Bridging In-school and Out-of-school Learning: Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education. J Sci Educ Technol 16, 171–190 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-006-9027-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-006-9027-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation