Journal of Seismology

, Volume 17, Issue 1, pp 109–135 | Cite as

Mechanical and statistical evidence of the causality of human-made mass shifts on the Earth’s upper crust and the occurrence of earthquakes

Original Article
First Online:
Received:
Accepted:

Abstract

A global catalog of small- to large-sized earthquakes was systematically analyzed to identify causality and correlatives between human-made mass shifts in the upper Earth’s crust and the occurrence of earthquakes. The mass shifts, ranging between 1 kt and 1 Tt, result from large-scale geoengineering operations, including mining, water reservoirs, hydrocarbon production, fluid injection/extractions, deep geothermal energy production and coastal management. This article shows evidence that geomechanical relationships exist with statistical significance between (a) seismic moment magnitudes M of observed earthquakes, (b) lateral distances of the earthquake hypocenters to the geoengineering “operation points” and (c) mass removals or accumulations on the Earth’s crust. Statistical findings depend on uncertainties, in particular, of source parameter estimations of seismic events before instrumental recoding. Statistical observations, however, indicate that every second, seismic event tends to occur after a decade. The chance of an earthquake to nucleate after 2 or 20 years near an area with a significant mass shift is 25 or 75 %, respectively. Moreover, causative effects of seismic activities highly depend on the tectonic stress regime in which the operations take place (i.e., extensive, transverse or compressive). Results are summarized as follows: First, seismic moment magnitudes increase the more mass is locally shifted on the Earth’s crust. Second, seismic moment magnitudes increase the larger the area in the crust is geomechanically polluted. Third, reverse faults tend to be more trigger-sensitive than normal faults due to a stronger alteration of the minimum vertical principal stress component. Pure strike-slip faults seem to rupture randomly and independently from the magnitude of the mass changes. Finally, mainly due to high estimation uncertainties of source parameters and, in particular, of shallow seismic events (<10 km), it remains still very difficult to discriminate between induced and triggered earthquakes with respect to the data catalog of this study. However, first analyses indicate that small- to medium-sized earthquakes (<M6) seem to be induced and large-sized events (>M6) seem to be triggered. The rupture propagation of triggered events might be dominated by pre-existing tectonic stress conditions.

Keywords

Mass shifts Geoengineering Human-made Earthquakes Human-caused Triggered Induced Shallow events Hazard 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Notes

Acknowledgements

The author expresses his gratitude to Think Geohazards, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, Ritsumeikan University, the German Science Foundation, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, and NATO’s Science for Peace and Security Programme for their support of funding and resources from 2005 to 2012. He is grateful to A. McGarr and three anonymous reviewers who reviewed this manuscript. He would also like to thank C.H. Scholz, H. Ogasawara, V.I. Khalturin, K.H. Jacob, P.H. Liotta, L. Seeber, D.W. Simpson, and S.K. Negmatullaev for their general support and their feedback on the earthquake catalog data.

References

  1. Adams RD (1974) The effect of Lake Benmore on local earthquakes. Eng Geol 8:155–169CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Adushkin VV, Yudin AE (2000) Seismicity in the oil field. Oil Field Rev 12:2–17Google Scholar
  3. Ahmad MU, Smith JA (1988) Earthquakes, injection wells, and the Perry Nuclear Power Plant, Cleveland, Ohio. Geology 16(8):739–742CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Allen T, Gibson G, Hill C (2000) The Thomson Reservoir triggered earthquakes. In: AEES conference. Proceedings. www.aees.org.au/Proceedings/2000_Papers/08_Allen_Gibson_Hill.pdf
  5. Ando M (2001) Geological and geophysical studies of the Nojima Fault from drilling: an outline of the Nojima Fault Zone Probe. Island Arc 10(3–4):206–214CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Anglin FM, Buchbinder GGR (1985) Induced seismicity at the LG3 Reservoir, James Bay, Quebec, Canada. Bull Seismol Soc Am 75(4):1067–1076Google Scholar
  7. Awad M, Mizoue M (1995a) Earthquake activity in the Aswan Region, Egypt. Pure Appl Geophys 145(1):69–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Awad M, Mizoue M (1995b) Tomographic inversion for the three-dimensional seismic velocity structure of the Aswan region, Egypt. Pure Appl Geophys 145(1):193–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Baisch S, Harjes H-P (2003) A model for fluid-injection-induced seismicity at the KTB, Germany. Geophys J Int 152(1):160–170CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Baisch S, Bohnhoff M, Ceranna L, Tu Y, Harjes H-P (2002) Probing the crust to 9-km depth: fluid-injection experiments and induced seismicity at the KTB superdeep drilling hole, Germany. Bull Seismol Soc Am 92(6):2369–2380CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Bakun WH (1984) Seismic moments, local magnitudes, and coda-duration magnitudes for earthquakes in central California. Bull Seismol Soc Am 74:2, 439–458Google Scholar
  12. Bartels J (1985) Tidal forces. In: Harrison JC (ed) Earth tides. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  13. Batini F, Burgassi PD, Cameli GM, Nicolich R, Squarci P (1978) Contribution to the study of the deep lithospheric proles: deep reecting horizons in Larderello-Travale geothermal eeld. Mem Soc Geol Ital 19:477–484Google Scholar
  14. Batini F, Console R, Luongo G (1985) Seismological Study of Larderello-Travale geothermal area. Geothermics 14:255–272CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Batini F, Brogi A, Lazzarotto A, Liotta D, Pandeli E (2003) Geological features of Larderello-Travale and Mt Amiata geothermal areas (southern Tuscany, Italy). Episodes 26(3):239–244Google Scholar
  16. Beeler NM, Lockner DA (2003) Why earthquakes correlate weakly with the solid Earth tides: effects of periodic stress on the rate and probability of earthquake occurrence. J Geophys Res 108(B8):2391CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Bock G, Mayer-Rosa D (1981) Seismic observation at Lake Emosson, Switzerland. Pure Appl Geophys 119:186–195CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Bossu R, Grasso JR, Plotnikova LM, Nurtaev B, Frechet J, Moisy M (1996) Complexity of intracontinental seismic faultings: the Gazli, Uzbekistan, sequence. Bull Seismol Soc Am 86(4):959–971Google Scholar
  19. Bourouis S, Bernard P (2007) Evidence for coupled seismic and aseismic fault slip during water injection in the geothermal site of Soultz (France), and implications for seismogenic transients. Geophys J Int 169(2):723–732CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Bozovic A (1974) Review and appraisal of case histories related to seismic effects of reservoir impounding. Eng Geol 8:9–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Braunmiller J, Deichmann N, Giardini D, Wiemer S, the SED Magnitude Working Group (2005) Homogeneous moment magnitude calibration in Switzerland. Bull Seismol Soc Am 95:1, 58–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Bufe CG (1975) The Anderson Reservoir seismic gap-induced seismicity? Paper presented at 1st int symp induced seismicity, Banff, 15–19 September 1975Google Scholar
  23. Bufe C, Lester FW, Lahr KM, Lahr JC, Seekins LC, Hanks TC (1976) Oroville earthquakes: normal faulting in the Sierra Nevada Foothills. Science 192:72–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Carder DS (1945) Seismic investigations in the Boulder Dam area, 1940–1944, and the influence of reservoir loading on earthquake activity. Bull Seismol Soc Am 35:175–192Google Scholar
  25. Cash D, Homuth EF, Keppler H, Pearson C, Sasaki S (1983) Fault plane solutions for microearthquakes induced at the Fenton Hill hot dry rock Geothermal site: implications for the state of stress near a quaternary volcanic center. Geophys Res Lett 10(12):1141–1144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Castellaro S, Bormann P (2007) Performance of different regression procedures on the magnitude conversion problem. Bull Seismol Soc Am 97:4, 1167–1175CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Cesca S, Dahm T, Juretzek C, Kühn D (2007) Rupture process of the 2001 May 7 Mw 4.3 Ekofisk induced earthquake. Geophys J Int 187(1):407–413CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Chen L, Talwani P (2001) Mechanism of initial seismicity following impoundment of the Monticello Reservoir, South Carolina. Bull Seismol Soc Am 91(6):1582–1594CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Chowdhury R (1978) Analysis of the vajont slide—new approach. Rock Mech Rock Eng 11(1):29–38Google Scholar
  30. Chung W-Y, Liu C (1992) The reservoir-associated earthquakes of April 1983 in Western Thailand: source modelling and implications for induced seismicity. Pure Appl Geophys 138(1):17–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Cochran E, Vidale J, Tanaka S (2004) Earth tides can trigger shallow thrust fault earthquakes. Science 306:1164–1166CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Cranswick E (2011) Coincidence of mines and earthquakes in Australia. In: Australian earthquake engineering society 2011 Conference, 18–20 NovemberGoogle Scholar
  33. Davis SD, Pennington WD (1989) Induced seismic deformation in the Cogdell oil field of west Texas. Bull Seismol Soc Am 79(5):1477–1495Google Scholar
  34. Davis SD, Nyffenegger PA, Frohlich C (1995) The 9 April 1993 earthquake in south-central Texas: was it induced by fluid withdrawal? Bull Seismol Soc Am 85(6):1888–1895Google Scholar
  35. Dose ID, Baker MR, Mason DB (1991) Seismicity in the War-Wink gas field, Delaware Basin, west Texas, and its relationship to petroleum production. Bull Seismol Soc Am 81(3):971–986Google Scholar
  36. Dumas DB (1989) Active seismic focus near Snyder, Texas. Bull Seismol Soc Am 69:1295–1299Google Scholar
  37. Ellis RM, Dragert H, Ozard JM (1976) Seismic activity in the McNaughton Lake area, Canada. Eng Geol 10(2–4):227–238CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Evans K (1989) Appalachian stress study 3: regional scale stress variations and their relation to structure and contemporary tectonics. J Geophys Res 94:17619–17646CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Evans KF, Moriya H, Niitsuma H, Jones RH, Phillips WS, Genter A, Sausse J, Jung R, Baria R (2004) Microseismicity and permeability enhancement of hydrogeologic structures during massive fluid injections into granite at 3 km depth at the Soultz HDR site. Geophys J Int 160(1):389–412CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Fabriol H, Beauce A (1997) Temporal and spatial distribution of the local seismicity in the Chipilapa-Ahuachapan geothermal area, El Salvador. Geothermics 26:681–699CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Fehler MC (1989) Stress control of seismicity patterns observed during hydraulic fracturing experiments at the Fenton Hill hot dry rock geothermal energy site, New Mexico. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 26(3–4):211–219Google Scholar
  42. Fletcher JB (1982) A comparison between the tectonic stress measured in situ and stress parameters from induced seismicity at Monticello Reservoir, South Carolina. J Geophys Res 87(B8):6931–6944CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Fritschen R (2010) Mining-induced seismicity in the Saarland, Germany. Pure Appl Geophys 167(1–2):77–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Gomberg J, Wolf L (1999) A possible cause for an improbable earthquake: the 1997, Mw4.9 southern Alabama earthquake and hydrocarbon recovery. Geology 27:367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Gough DI, Gough WI (1970a) Stress and deflection in the lithosphere near Lake Kariba, 1. Geophys J 21:65–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Gough DI, Gough WI (1970b) Load induced earthquakes at Kariba, 2. Geophys J R Astron Soc 21:79–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Grasso JR (1992) Mechanics of seismic instabilities induced by the recovery of hydrocarbons. Pure Appl Geophys 139:507–534CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Grasso JR, Feignier B (1990) Seismicity induced by a gas depletion: lithology, I, correlated events, induced stresses and deformation. Pure Appl Geophys 134:427–450CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Grasso JR, Wittlinger G (1990) Ten years of seismic monitoring over a gas field area. Bull Seismol Soc Am 80:450–473Google Scholar
  50. Grasso J-R, Gratier J-P, Gamond JF, Paumier J-C (1992) Stress transfer and seismic instability in the upper crust: example of the western Pyrenees. J Struct Geol 14:915–924CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Guha SK, Gosavi PD, Agarwal BNP, Padale JG, Marwadi SC (1974) Case histories of some artificial crustal disturbances. Eng Geol 8:59–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Gupta HK (1985) The present status of the reservoir induced seismicity investigations with special emphasis on Koyna earthquakes. Tectonophysics 118:257–279CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Gupta H-K (2002) A review of recent studies of triggered earthquakes by artificial water reservoirs with special emphasis on earthquakes in Koyna, India. Earth-Sci Rev 58:279–310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Gupta HK, Rastogi BK (1974) Investigations of the behavior of reservoir-associated earthquakes. Eng Geol 8:29–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Gupta HK, Rastogi BK (1976) Dams and earthquakes. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 229 ppGoogle Scholar
  56. Gupta HK, Rastogi BK, Chadha RK, Mandhal P, Sarma CSP (1997) Enhanced reservoir-induced earthquakes in Koyna region, India, during 1993–95. J Seismol 1:47–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Hagiwara T, Ohtake M (1972) Seismic activity associated with the failing of the reservoir behind Kurobe Dam, Japan, 1963–1970. Tectonophysics 15:241–254CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Hamilton DH, Meehan RL (1971) Ground rupture in the Baldwin Hills. Science 172:3981Google Scholar
  59. Hamilton RM, Muffler LJP (1972) Microearthquakes at the Geysers geothermal area, California. Geophys J Res 77:2081–2086CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Hassoup A (2002) Seismicity and water level variations in the Lake Aswan area in Egypt 1982–1997. Journal of Seismology 6(4):459–467CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Healy JH, Rubey WW, Griggs DT, Raleigh CB (1968) The Denver earthquakes. Science 161:1301–1310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Hough SE, Seeber L, Armbruster JG (2003) Intraplate triggered earthquakes: observations and interpretation. Bull Seismol Soc Am 93:2212–2221CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Hu P, Hu Y (1992) Advances in reservoir-induced seismicity research in China. Tectonophysics 209(1–4):331Google Scholar
  64. Hu YL, Liu ZY, Yang QY, Chen XC, Hu P, Ma WT, Lei J (1996) Induced seismicity at Wujiangdu Reservoir, China: a case induced in Karst Area. Pure Appl Geophys 147:409–418CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Jacob KH, Pennigton WD, Armbruster J, Seeber L, Farhatulla S (1979) Tarbela Reservoir, Pakistan: a region of compressional tectonics with reduced seismicity upon initial reservoir filling. Bull Seismol Soc Am 69:1175–1192Google Scholar
  66. Jaeger J, Cook NG, Zimmerman R (2007) Fundamentals of rock mechanics, 4th edn. Wiley, NY pp 488Google Scholar
  67. Jenner P, Dienesh J (1965) Histoire g6ophysique du champ de Lacq. Geophys Prospect 13:518–540CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Johnston AC, Kanter LR (1990) Earthquakes in stable continental crust. Sci Am 262(3):68–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Kalinin NI, Kuzin IP (1982) Artificial seismicity, conditions and possible mechanism of occurrence of dam\(\dot{I}\) earthquakes. Power Technol Eng 16(6):295–302Google Scholar
  70. Kanamori H (1983) Magnitude scale and quantification of earthquakes. Tectomophysics 93:185–199CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Kangi A, Heidari N (2008) Reservoir-induced seismicity in Karun III dam (Southwestern Iran). J Seismol 12(4):519–527CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Kayal JR, Mukhopadhyay S (2002) Seismic tomography structure of the 1993 Killari earthquake. Bull Seismol Soc Am 92:2036–2039CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Klein FW (1976) Tidal triggering of reservoir-associated earthquakes. Eng Geol 10:197–210CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Klose CD (2006) First global catalog of human-triggered earthquakes (status quo 2005). Seismological Society of America - Eastern Section, 1–4 October 2006, Ottawa, CanadaGoogle Scholar
  75. Klose CD (2007) Coastal land loss and gain as potential earthquake trigger mechanism in SCRs. Eos Trans AGU, vol 88(52), Fall Meet Suppl, Abstract T51D-0759. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AGUFM.T51D0759K
  76. Klose CD (2007a) Geomechanical modeling of the nucleation process of Australia’s 1989 Newcastle earthquake. Earth Planet Sci Lett 256:547–553CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Klose CD (2007b) Mine water discharge and flooding: a cause of severe earthquakes. Mine Water Environ 26:172–180CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. Klose CD (2009) On to what extent stresses resulting from the Earth’s surface trigger earthquakes. EOS Trans AGU vol 90(54), Fall Meet Suppl, Abstract S54A-08Google Scholar
  79. Klose CD (2010) Human-triggered earthquakes and their impacts on human security, achieving environmental security: ecosystem services and human welfare. In: Liotta PH et al (eds) NATO science for peace and security series - E: human and societal dynamics, vol 69, pp 13–19. doi: 10.3233/978-1-60750-579-2-13
  80. Klose CD (2011) Evidence for anthropogenic surface loading as trigger mechanism of the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake. Environ Earth Sci. doi: 10.1007/s12665-011-1355-7 Google Scholar
  81. Klose CD, Seeber L (2007) Shallow seismicity in stable continental regions. Seismol Res Lett 76:554–562CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Kosloff D, Scott RF, Scranton J (1980) Finite element simulation of Wilmington oil field subsidence: I. Linear modelling. Tectonophysics 65(3–4):339–368CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Kovach R (1974) Source mechanisms for Willmington oil field, California, subsidence earthquakes. Bull Seismol Soc Am 64:699–711Google Scholar
  84. Kozyrev AA, Savchenko SN, Mal’tsev VA (2005) Causes of technogenic earthquake during open mining in the Khibiny Apatite deposits. J Min Sci 41(3):202–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Kravanja S, Batini F, Fiordelisi A, Panza GF (2000) Full moment tensor retrieval from waveform inversion in the Larderello geothermal area. Pure Appl Geophys 157(9):1379–1392CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. Kremenetskaya EO, Trjapitsin VM (1995) Induced seismicity in the Khibiny Massif (Kola Peninsula). Pure Appl Geophys 145(1):29–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Knoll P (1990) The fluid-induced tectonic rock burst of 13 March 1989 in Werra potash mining district of the GDR (first results). Gerlands Breitr Geophys 99:239–245Google Scholar
  88. Kraft T, Mai PM, Wiemer S, Deichmann N, Ripperger J, Kästli P, Bachmann C, Fäh D, Wössner J, Giardini D (2009) Enhanced geothermal systems: mitigating risk in urban areas. Eos Trans AGU 90. doi: 10.1029/2009EO320001 Google Scholar
  89. Lamontagne M, Hammamji Y, Peci V (2008) Reservoir-triggered seismicity at the Toulnustouc hydroelectric project, Quebec North Shore, Canada. Bull Seismol Soc Am 98(5):2543–2552CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Leydecker G (1998) Der Gebirgsschlag vom 13. März 1989 bei Völkershausen in Thüringen im Kalibergbaugebiet des Werratals. Geologisches Jahrbuch der Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe 55E:99Google Scholar
  91. Majer EL, Peterson JE (2007) The impact of injection on seismicity at The Geysers, California Geothermal Field. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 44(8):1079–1090CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. Maury VMR, Grasso J-R, Wittlinger G (1992) Monitoring of subsidence and induced seismicity in the lacq gas field (France): the consequences on gas production and field operation. Eng Geol 32:123–135CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. McGarr A (1988) On the state of lithospheric stress in the absence of applied tectonic forces. J Geophys Res 93:13609–13617CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. McGarr A (1991) On a possible connection between three major earthquakes in California and oil production. Bull Seismol Soc Am 81:948–970Google Scholar
  95. McGarr A, Simpson D, Seeber L (2002) Case histories of induced and triggered seismicity. Int Handb Earthq Eng Seismol 81A:647–661CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Meade RB (1991) Reservoirs and earthquakes. Eng Geol 30:245–262CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Melnikov NN, Kozyrev AA, Panin VI (1996) Induced seismicity in large-scale mining in the Kola Peninsula and monitoring to reveal informative precursors. Pure Appl Geophys 147(2):263–276CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. Meremonte ME, Lahr JC, Frankel AD, Dewey JW, Crone AJ, Overturf DE, Carver DL, Bice WT (2002) Investigation of an earthquake swarm near Trinidad, Colorado, August-October 2001, US Geological Survey Open-File Report 02-0073. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2002/ofr-02-0073/ofr-02-0073.html
  99. Muco B (1991a) Evidence for induced seismicity of Fierza Reservoir, Northern Albania. Pure Appl Geophys 136:265–279CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. Muco B (1991b) The swarm of Nikaj-Merturi, Albania. Bull Seismol Soc Am 81:1015–1021Google Scholar
  101. Nicholson C, Wesson RL (1992) Triggered earthquakes and deep well activities. Pure Appl Geophys 139:561CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Okamoto S, Mizukoshi T, Miyata Y (1985) On the observations of microearthquake activity before and after impounding at the Takase Dam. A special report. Phys Earth Planet Inter 44(2):115–133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. Omenda PA (1998) The geology and structural controls of the Olkaria geothermal system. Kenya Geothermics 27(1):55–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. Pennington WD, Davis SD, Carlson S, Dupree J, Ewing TE (1986) The evolution of seismic barriers and asperities caused by the depressuring of fault planes in oil and gas fields of South Texas. Bull Seismol Soc Am 76(4):939–948Google Scholar
  105. Phillips WS (2000) Precise microearthquake locations and fluid flow in the geothermal reservoir at Soultz-sous-Forts, France. Bull Seismol Soc Am 90(1):212–228CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. Piccinelli FG, Mucciarelli M, Federici P, Albarello D (1995) The microseismic network of the Ridracoli Dam, North Italy: data and interpretations. Pure Appl Geophys 145(1):97–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. Plotnikova LM, Makhmudova VI, Sigalova OB (1992) Seismicity associated with the Charvak Reservoir, Uzbekistan. Pure Appl Geophys 139(3–4):607–608CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. Pomeroy PW, Simpson DW, Sbar ML (1976) Earthquakes triggered by surface quarrying-the wappingers falls, New York sequence of June, 1974. Bull Seismol Soc Am 66(3):685–700Google Scholar
  109. Rajendran K, Gupta HK (1986) Was the earthquake sequence of August 1975 in the vicinity of Lake Oroville, California, reservoir induced? Phys Earth Planet Inter 44:142–148CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. Rajendran K, Harish CM (2000) Mechanism of triggered seismicity at Koyna: an assessment based on relocated earthquake during 1983–1993. Curr Sci 79(3):358–363Google Scholar
  111. Rajendran K, Talwani P (1992) The role of elastic, undrained and drained responses in triggering earthquakes at Monticello Reservoir, South Carolina. Bull Seismol Soc Am 82:1867–1888Google Scholar
  112. Rajendran K, Salvador ME, Owens TJ (1993) Three dimensional P velocity image of the Oroville Reservoir area, California, from local earthquake tomography. Geophys Res Lett 20(15):1627–1630CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. Raleigh CB, Healy JH, Bredehoeft JD (1976) An experiment in earthquake control at Rangely, Colorado. Science 191:1230–1237CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. Rastogi BK, Chadha RK, Sarma CSP (1995) Investigations of 7 June 1988 earthquake of magnitude 4.5 near Idukki dam in southern India. Pure Appl Geophys 145(1):109–122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. Rastogi BK, Chadha RK, Raju IP (1986a) Seismicity near Bhatsa Reservoir, Maharashtra, India. Phys Earth Planet Inter 44:179–199CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  116. Rastogi BK, Rao CVRK, Chadha RK, Gupta HK (1986b) Microearthquakes near Osmansagar Reservoir, Hyderabad, India. Phys Earth Planet Inter 44(2):134–141CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. Rastogi BK, Mandal P, Kumar N (1997a) Seismicity around Dhamni Dam, Maharashtra, India. Pure Appl Geophys 150(3–4):493–509CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. Rastogi BK, Chadha RK, Sarma CSP, Mandal P, Satyanarayana HVS, Raju IP, Narendra Kumar, Satyamurthy C, Nageswara Rao A (1997b) Seismicity at Warna Reservoir (near Koyna) through 1995. Bull Seismol Soc Am 87(6):1484–1494Google Scholar
  119. Rhoades DA (1996) Estimation of the Gutenberg-Richter relation allowing for individual earthquake magnitude uncertainties. Tectonophysics 258(1–4):71–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. Rothe JP (1970) The seismic artificials (man-made earthquakes). Tectonophysics 9:215–238CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. Rothe JP (1973) A geophysics report. In: Ackermann WC, White GF, Worthington EB (eds) Man-made lakes: their problems and environmental effects. Am Geophys Union, Geophys Monogr 17:441–454Google Scholar
  122. Ryall A, Peppin WA, Vanwormer JD (1976) Field-seismic investigation of the August 1975 Oroville, California, earthquake sequence. Eng Geol 10:353–369CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. Savage WU, Tocher D, Birkhahn PC (1976) A study of small aftershocks of the Oroville California, earthquake sequence of August 1975. Eng Geol 10:371–385CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. Scheidegger AE (1973) On the prediction of the reach and velocity of catastrophic landslides. Rock Mech Rock Eng 5(4):231–236Google Scholar
  125. Scholz CH (2002) The mechanics of earthquakes and faulting. Cambridge University Press, New YorkCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  126. Schulte M, Mooney WD (2005) An updated global earthquake catalogue of stable continental regions: reassessing the correlation with ancient rifts. Geophys J Int 161:707–721CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  127. Scordilis EM (2006) Empirical global relations converting MS and mb to moment magnitude. J Seismol 10:225–236. doi: 10.1007/s10950-006-9012-4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. Secor DT, Peck LS, Pitcher DM, Prowell DC, Simpson DH, Smith WA, Snoke AW (1982) Geology of the area of induced seismic activity at Monticello Reservoir, South Carolina. J Geophys Res 87(B8):6945–6957CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. Seeber L (2002) Mechanical pollution. Seismol Res Lett 73:315–317CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. Seeber L, Armbruster JG, Kim W-Y, Barstrow N, Scharnberger C (1998) The 1994 Cacoosing Valley earthquake near Reading, Pennsylvania: a shallow rupture triggered by quarry unloading. J Geophys Res 103(B10):24505–24521CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. Seeber L, Ekström G, Jain SK, Murty CVR, Chandak NC, Armbruster JG (1996) The 1993 Killari earthquake in central India: a new fault in Mesozoic basalt flow? J Geophys Res 101:8543–8560CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. Seeber L, Armbruster JG, Kim W-Y (2004) A fluid-injection-triggered earthquake sequence in Ashtabula, Ohio: implications for seismogenesis in stable continental regions. Bull Seismol Soc Am 94(1):76–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. Segall PJR, Grasso AM (1994) Poroelastic stressing and induced seismicity near the lacq gas field, Southwestern France. J Geophys Res 15:423Google Scholar
  134. Selby N, Eshun E, Patton H, Douglas A (2005) Unusual long-period Rayleigh wave radiation from a vertical dip-slip source: the 7 May 2001, North Sea earthquake. J Geophys Res 110:B10304CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  135. Shen L-Y, Chang B-Q (1995) Application of stress – pore pressure coupling theory for porous media to the Xinfengjiang Reservoir earthquakes. Pure Appl Geophys 145(1):123–137CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. Shen C, Chang C, Chen H, Li T, Hueng L, Wang T, Yang C, Lo H (1974) Earthquakes induced by reservoir impounding and their effect on the Hsinfengkiang Dam. Sci Sin 17(2):239–272Google Scholar
  137. Sibson RH (1982) Fault zone models, heat flow, and the depth distribution of earthquakes in the continental crust of the United States. Bull Seismol Soc Am 72(1):151–163Google Scholar
  138. Sibson RH (1983) Continental fault structure and the shallow earthquake source. J Geol Soc Lond 140:741–767CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  139. Simiyu SM (1999) Induced micro-seismicity during well discharge: OW-719, Olkaria, Kenya rift. Geothermics 28(6):785–802CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. Simpson DW (1976) Seismicity changes associated with reservoir loading. Eng Geol 10(2–4):123–1500CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  141. Simpson DW, Leith W (1985) The 1976 and 1984 Gazli, USSR, earthquakes - were they induced? Bull Seismol Soc Am 75:1465–468Google Scholar
  142. Simpson DW, Negmatullaev SK (1981) Induced seismicity at Nurek Reservoir, Tadjikistan, USSR. Bull Seismol Soc Am 71(5):1561–1586Google Scholar
  143. Simpson DW, Hamburger MW, Pavlov UD, Nersesov IL (1981) Tectonics and seismicity of the Toktogul Reservoir region, Kirgizia, USSR. J Geophys Res 86:345–358; Geol Eng 1:135–146CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  144. Soboleva OV, Mamadaliev UA (1976) The influence of the Nurek Reservoir on local earthquake activity. Eng Geol 10:293–305CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  145. Soliva R, Benedicto A, Schultz RA, Maerten L, Micarelli L (2008) Displacement and interaction of normal fault segments branched at depth: implications for fault growth and potential earthquake rupture size. J Struct Geol 30:1288–1299CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. Stein S, Wiens DA, Fujita K (1982) The 1966 Kremasta Reservoir earthquake sequence. Earth Planet Sci Lett 59(1):49–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. Steacy S, Gomberg J, Cocco M (2005) Introduction to special section: stress transfer, earthquake triggering, and time-dependent seismic hazard. J Geophys Res 110:1–12Google Scholar
  148. Tadokoro K, Ando M, Nishigami K (2000) Induced earthquakes accompanying the water injection experiment at the Nojima fault zone, Japan: seismicity and its migration. J Geophys Res 105(B3):6089–6104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  149. Talwani P (1976a) Earthquakes associated with Clark Hill Reservoir, South Carolina case of induced seismicity. Paper presented at the 1st int symp on induced seismicity. Eng Geol 10:239–253CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. Talwani P (1976b) Stress distribution near lake Jocassee, South Carolina. Pure Appl Geophys 115(1–2):275–281Google Scholar
  151. Talwani P (1995) Speculation on the causes of continuing seismicity near Koyna Reservoir, India. Pure Appl Geophys 145(1):167–174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. Talwani P (1997) Seismotectonics of the Koyna-Warna area, India. Pure Appl Geophys 150:511–550CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  153. Tanaka S, Ohtake M, Sato H (2002) Evidence for tidal triggering of earthquakes as revealed from statistical analysis of global data. J Geophys Res 107(B10):2211CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  154. Therianos AD (1974) The seismic activity of the Kremasta area - Greece - between 1967 and 1972. Eng Geol 8(1–2):49–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  155. Tocher D (1962) The Hebgen lake, Montana, earthquake of 17 August 1959, MST. Bull Seismol Soc Am 52(2):153–162Google Scholar
  156. Townend J, Zoback MD (2000) How faulting keeps the crust strong. Geology 28:399–402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  157. Voight B, Faust C (1992) Frictional heat and strength loss in some rapid landslides: error correction and affirmation of mechanism for the Vaiont landslide. Geotechnique 42:641–643CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  158. Wang W-M, Zhao L-F, Li J, Yao Z-X (2008) Rupture process of the Ms8.0 Wenchuan earthquake of Sichuan, China. Chin J Geophys 51(5):1403Google Scholar
  159. Winnock E, Pontalier Y (1968) Lacq gas field, France. In: Geology of giant petroleum field. Pap presented 53rd annu meet AAPG. AAPG mem, vol 14, pp 370–387Google Scholar
  160. Witkind IJ, Myers WB, Hadley JB, Hamilton W, Fraser GD (1962) Geologic features of the earthquake at Hebgen Lake, Montana, 17 August 1959. Bull Seismol Soc Am 52:163–180Google Scholar
  161. Yerkes RF, Castle RO (1976) Seismicity and faulting attributable to fluid extraction. Eng Geol 10(1970):151–167CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  162. Yunga S, Simpson D, Kondratenko A (1996) Seismotectonic deformation during the filling of Toktogul Reservoir, Kirghizia. Pure Appl Geophys 147(2):419–431CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  163. Zhang Y, Feng WP, Xu LS, Zhou CH, Chen YT (2009) Spatio-temporal rupture process of the 2008 great Wenchuan earthquake. Sci China, Ser D-Earth Sci 52(2):145CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  164. Zhong YZ, Gao C, Yunga B (1997) Induced seismicity in Liaoning Province, China. Pure Appl Geophys 150(3–4):461–472CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  165. Zoback MD, Harjes HP (1997) Injection-induced earthquakes and crustal stress at 9 km depth at the KTB deep drilling site, Germany. J Geophys Res 102(18):47718, 491Google Scholar
  166. Zoback MD, Hickman S (1982) Physical mechanisms controlling induced seismicity at Monticello Reservoir, South Carolina. J Geophys Res 87:6959–6974CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  167. Zoback MD, Zinke JC (2002) Production-induced normal faulting in the Valhall and Ekofisk oil fields. Pure Appl Geophys 159(1–3):403–420CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Think GeohazardsBronxvilleUSA
  2. 2.NorthWest Research AssociatesRedmondUSA

Personalised recommendations