Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sidedness in Carrying Objects Other than Infants Resembles Sidedness in Infant Cradling: A Two Nation Study of Gender Differences

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Nonverbal Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Studies have repeatedly documented that 60 to 80 % of adults cradle (or carry) infants on the left side of their bodies. However, very little is known about sidedness tendencies when carrying objects in general. The present naturalistic study examines sidedness among college students as they carried books and other “academic” objects on campus. Special attention was given to sidedness biases in the use of a cradling-like carrying style. Over 2,500 observations were made of non-infant object carrying by college students in Malaysia and the United States. In both countries, females used a cradling-like carrying style much more than did males, while males predominantly carried books beside the hip. Regarding sidedness, there were significant left sided biases in the use of a cradling-like style by females in both countries and by males in Malaysia. Other sidedness differences in object carrying were also found. The left sided bias in infant carrying documented in other studies roughly resembles what this study found regarding the carrying of objects bearing no resemblance to infants, especially by females. Theories for left sided biases in infant cradling need to account for why similar biases exist particularly among females when they are carrying inanimate objects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abel, E. L. (2010). Human left-sided cradling preferences for dogs. Psychological Reports, 107, 336–338.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad, Z. H., & Kadir, S. (2005). Ethnic conflict, prevention and management: The Malaysian case. In K. Snitwongse & W. S. Thompson (Eds.), Ethnic conflict in Southeast Asia (pp. 42–64). Singapore: ISEAS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alpers, G. W. (2008). Eye-catching: Right hemisphere attentional bias for emotional pictures. Laterality, 13, 158–178.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bianki, V. L., & Filippova, E. B. (2001). Sex differences in lateralization of the animal brain. New York: Taylor and Francis (originally published in Russian).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogren, L. Y. (1984). Side preference in women and men when holding their newborn child: Psychological background. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 69, 13–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borod, J. C., Cicero, B. A., Obler, L. K., Welkowitz, J., Erhan, H. M., Santschi, C., et al. (1998). Right hemisphere emotional perception: Evidence across multiple channels. Neuropsychology Neuropsychology, 12, 446–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourne, V. J., & Todd, B. K. (2004). When left means right: An explanation of the left cradling bias in terms of right hemisphere specializations. Developmental Science, 7, 19–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bundy, R. S. (1979). Effects of infant head position on side preferences in adult handling. Infant Behavior and Development, 2, 355–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carey, D. P., Smith, G., Smith, D. T., Shepherd, J. S., Ord, L., & Rutland, A. (2001). Footedness in world soccer: An analysis of France’98. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, 855–864.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crovitz, H. F., & Zener, K. (1962). A group-test for assessing hand-and eye-dominance. American Journal of Psychology, 75, 271–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Damerose, E., & Vauclair, J. (2002). Posture and laterality in human and nonhuman primates: Asymmetries in maternal handling and the infant’s early motor asymmetries. In L. J. Rogers & M. Andrew (Eds.), Comparative vertebrate lateralization (pp. 306–362). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • de Château, P. (1983). Left-side preference for holding and carrying newborn infants: Parental holding and carrying during the first week of life. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 171, 241–248.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Château, P., & Andersson, Y. (1976). Left-sided perference for holding and carrying newborn infants, II: Doll-holding and carrying from 2 to 16 years. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 18, 738–744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Château, P., Holmberg, H., & Winberg, J. (1978). Leftside preference in holding and carrying newborn infants. I: Mothers holding and carrying during the first week of life. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 67, 169–175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiPrete, T. A., & Buchmann, C. (2006). Gender-specific trends in the value of education and the emerging gender gap in college completion. Demography, 43, 1–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donnot, J., & Vauclair, J. (2007). Infant holding preferences in maternity hospitals: Testing the hypothesis of the lateralized perception of emotions. Developmental Neuropsychology, 32, 881–890.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, L. (2011). Identifying and explaining apparent universal sex differences in cognition and behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 552–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, L., Hershberger, S., Field, E., Wersinger, S., Pellis, S., Geary, D., et al. (2008). Sex differences: Summarizing more than a century of scientific research. New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firebaugh, G., & Dorius, S. F. (2010). Trends in global gender inequality. Social Forces, 88, 1941–1968.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galobardes, B., Bernstein, M. S., & Morabia, A. (1999). The association between switching hand preference and the declining prevalence of left-handedness with age. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1873–1875.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, D. J. G., Greenwood, J. J. D., McCullagh, J. F., Beggs, J., & Murphy, C. A. (2007). A survey of sidedness in Northern Irish schoolchildren: The interaction of sex, age, and task. Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain, and Cognition, 12, 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, L. J., Almerigi, J. B., Carbary, T. J., & Fogel, T. G. (2001). Left-side infant holding: A test of the hemispheric arousal-attentional hypothesis. Brain and Cognition, 46, 159–165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, L. J., Almerigi, J. B., & Kirsch, E. A. (2000). Side preference in adults for holding infants: Contributions of sex and handedness in a test of imagination. Brain and Cognition, 43, 246–252.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, L. J., Cardenas, R. A., Spradlin, M. P, Jr, & Almerigi, J. B. (2010). Why are infants held on the left? A test of the attention hypothesis with a doll, a book, and a bag. Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition, 15, 548–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, L. J., & Fitzgerald, H. E. (1985). Lateral cradling preferences in men and women: Results from a photographic study. Journal of General Psychology, 112, 185–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, L. J., Spradlin, M. P, Jr, & Almerigi, J. B. (2006). Mothers’ and fathers’ lateral biases for holding their newborn infants: A study of images from the World Wide Web. Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition, 12, 64–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, W. D., & De Lathouwers, M. (2006). Left nipple preferences in infant Pan paniscus and P. troglodytes. International Journal of Primatology, 27, 1653–1662.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huheey, J. E. (1977). Concerning the origin of handedness in humans. Behavior Genetics, 7, 29–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenni, D. A., & Jenni, M. A. (1976). Carrying behavior in humans: Analysis of sex differences. Science, 194(4267), 859–860.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La France, M., & Mayo, C. (1979). A review of nonverbal behaviors of women and men. Western Journal of Communication, 43, 96–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lalumière, M. L., Blanchard, R., & Zucker, K. J. (2000). Sexual orientation and handedness in men and women: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 575–592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lockard, J. S., Daley, P. C., & Gunderson, V. M. (1979). Maternal and paternal differences in infant carry: US and African data. American Naturalist, 113, 235–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, M. D., Turnbull, O. H., & Kaplan-Solms, K. L. (1993). Laterality of cradling in relation to perception and expression of facial affect. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 154, 347–352.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. (1991). Sex differences in left-side infant holding: Results from family album photographs. Ethology and Sociobiology, 12, 337–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J., & Chamberlain, A. T. (1991). Left-sided cradling and brain lateralization. Ethology and Sociobiology, 12, 237–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J., & Denman, J. (1994). Lateral cradling preferences in humans (Homo sapiens): Similarities within families. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 262–265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J., Lockard, J. S., Daley, P. C., & Gunderson, V. (1979). Maternal and paternal differences in infant carry: US and African data. American Naturalist, 113, 235–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J., Trivers, R., Thornhill, R., Singh, D., Denman, J., Eklo, M., et al. (1997). Ear asymmetry and left-side cradling. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18, 327–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, W. L. B., & Machado, A. H. (2005). Deriving estimates of contralateral footedness from prevalence rates in samples of Brazilian and non-Brazilian right-and left-handers. Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain, and Cognition, 10, 353–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matheson, A. E., & Turnbull, O. H. (1998). Visual determinants of the leftward cradling bias: A preliminary report. Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition, 3, 283–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta, P. H., & Josephs, R. A. (2010). Testosterone and cortisol jointly regulate dominance: Evidence for a dual-hormone hypothesis. Hormones and Behavior, 58, 898–906.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakamichi, M. (1996). The left-side holding preference is not universal: Evidence from field observations in Madagascar. Ethology and Sociobiology, 17, 173–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakamichi, M., & Takeda, S. (1995). A child-holding thought experiment: Students prefer to imagine holding an infant on the left side of the body. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 80, 687–690.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Negayama, K., Kawai, M., Yamamoto, H., Tomiwa, K., & Sakakihara, Y. (2010). Behavioral development of infant holding and its laterality in relation to mothers’ handedness and child-care attitude. Infant Behavior and Development, 33, 68–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nishida, T. (1993). Left nipple sucking preference in wild chimpanzees. Ethology & Sociobiology, 14, 45–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noonan, M., & Axelrod, S. (1989). The stability and inter-test consonance of lateral postural-motor biases in rats: Results and implications. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 52, 386–405.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Papadatou-Pastou, M. (2011). Handedness and language lateralization: Why are we right-handed and left-brained? Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 8, 248–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papadatou-Pastou, M., Martin, M., Munafò, M. R., & Jones, G. V. (2008). Sex differences in left-handedness: A meta-analysis of 144 studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 677–699.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Forum. (2012). U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. http://religions.pewforum.org/reports (Accessed June 19, 2012).

  • Polemikos, N., & Papaeliou, C. (2000). Sidedness preference as an index of organization of laterality. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 91, 1083–1090.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rausch, R., & Walsh, G. O. (1984). Right-hemisphere language dominance in right-handed epileptic patients. Archives of Neurology, 41, 1077–1080.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond, M., Pontier, D., Dufour, A. B., & Moller, A. P. (1996). Frequency-dependent maintenance of left handedness in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 263(1377), 1627–1633.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reissland, N. (2000). The cradling bias in relation to pitch of maternal child-directed language. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 179–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reissland, N., Hopkins, B., Helms, P., & Williams, B. (2009). Maternal stress and depression and the lateralisation of infant cradling. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 263–269.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rekers, G. A., & Mead, S. (1979). Human sex differences in carrying behaviors: A replication and extension. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 48, 625–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saling, M. M., & Kaplan-Solms, K. (1989). On lateral asymmetry in cradling behaviour and breast sensitivity. Current Anthropology, 30, 210–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saling, M. M., & Tyson, G. (1981). Lateral cradling preferences in nulliparous females. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 139, 309–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salk, L. (1960). The effects of normal heartbeat sound on the behavior of the newborn infant: Implications for mental health. World Mental Health, 12, 168–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Senie, R. T., Saftlas, A. F., Brinton, L. A., & Hoover, R. N. (1993). Is breast size a predictor of breast cancer risk or the laterality of the tumor? Cancer Causes and Control, 4, 203–208.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sieratzki, J. S., & Woll, B. (1996). Why do mothers cradle babies on their left? The Lancet, 347, 1746–1748.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sieratzki, J. S., & Woll, B. (2002). Neuropsychological and neuropsychiatric perspectives on maternal cradling preferences. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale, 11, 170–176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stables, D., & Hewitt, G. (1995). The effect of lateral asymmetries on breast feeding skills: Can midwives’ holding interventions overcome unilateral breast feeding problems. Midwifery, 11, 28–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinmetz, H., Volkmann, J., Jäncke, L., & Freund, H. J. (2004). Anatomical left-right asymmetry of language-related temporal cortex is different in left-and right-handers. Annals of Neurology, 29, 315–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strauch, J. (1981). Multiple ethnicities in Malaysia: The shifting relevance of alternative Chinese categories. Modern Asian Studies, 15, 235–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomaszycki, M., Cline, C., Griffin, B., Maestripieri, D., & Hopkins, W. D. (1998). Maternal cradling and infant nipple preferences in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Developmental Psychobiology, 32, 305–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, O. H., & Bryson, H. E. (2001). The leftward cradling bias and hemispheric asymmetry for speech prosody. Laterality: Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition, 6, 21–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, O. H., & Lucas, M. D. (1996). Is the leftward cradling bias related to lateral asymmetries of attention? Journal of Genetic Psychology, 157, 161–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, O. H., Rhys-Jones, S. L., & Jackson, A. L. (2001). The leftward cradling bias and prosody: An investigation of cradling preferences in the deaf community. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 162, 178–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Meer, A., & Husby, Å. (2006). Handedness as a major determinant of functional cradling bias. Laterality, 11, 263–276.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vauclair, J., & Donnot, J. (2005). Infant holding biases and their relations to hemispheric specializations for perceiving facial emotions. Neuropsychologia, 43, 564–571.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vieira, M. I., da Silva, S. V., Chaves, D. N., & Petroianu, A. (1996). Relação entre câncer de mama, sensibilidade mamária, amamentação e lateralidade cerebral. Revista Hospital Clinica, 51, 85–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, D., Stern, M., Duggirala, R., Dyer, T., & Almasy, L. (2006). Heritability and linkage analysis of hand, foot, and eye preference in Mexican Americans. Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain, and Cognition, 11, 508–524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiland, J. H., & Sperber, Z. (1970). Patterns of mother-infant contact: The significance of lateral preference. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 117, 157–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Lee Ellis & Siti Nor Awang

  2. Saddleback College, Mission Viejo, CA, USA

    Stephanie Larkin

Authors
  1. Lee Ellis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Siti Nor Awang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Stephanie Larkin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lee Ellis.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ellis, L., Awang, S.N. & Larkin, S. Sidedness in Carrying Objects Other than Infants Resembles Sidedness in Infant Cradling: A Two Nation Study of Gender Differences. J Nonverbal Behav 37, 231–244 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-013-0156-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-013-0156-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation