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Identification of the fronts from the Kuroshio Extension to the Subarctic Current using absolute dynamic topographies in satellite altimetry products

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Abstract

The climatologies and variabilities of the fronts associated with the Kuroshio Extension (KE), the Kuroshio Extension Northern Branch (KENB), the flow along the Subarctic Boundary (SAB), and the Subarctic Current (SAC) are identified by a new method based on the absolute dynamic height product from the archiving, validation, and interpretation of satellite oceanographic data (the AVISO product). The fronts are detected by examining the specific contour values of the absolute dynamic topography (ADT) in the AVISO product. The (time-varying) specific contour values are decided from the local maxima of the averaged surface geostrophic velocity along the ADT. Assuming the specific contours as the front locations, we obtain an occurrence frequency map of the four front locations, and determine the monthly variability of the fronts over the 1993–2015 period. The results are validated by hydrographic observations. The KE and KENB east of the Shatsky Rise migrate southward several times at a speed of ~ 0.2 cm s−1, while the SAB and SAC are mostly stationary.

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Notes

  1. There is some confusion regarding the names of these fronts. For example, the northernmost front is sometimes called the Polar Front, and the term SAF is applied to various fronts. See “Appendix” for more details.

  2. The averaged period differs between MDT and MOAA-GPV. However, the maps of the analyzed fronts are quite similar in the 1993–2015 and 2001–2015 averages.

  3. To calculate \(h_H\), we used the minimum value of nine \(h_m\) at (42.125°N, 143.125°E), (42.375°N, 143.375°E), (42.625°N, 143.625°E), (42.875°N, 143.875°E), (42.875°N, 144.125°E), (42.875°N, 144.375°E), (42.875°N, 144.625°E), (43.125°N, 144.875°E), and (43.375°N, 145.125°E). See area occupied by the green rectangles along the southeast coast of Hokkaido in Fig. 1a.

  4. To calculate \(h_I\), we used the minimum value of the four points of \(h_m\) at (35.625°N, 140.625°E), (35.625°N, 140.875°E), (35.875°N, 140.625°E), and (35.875°N, 140.875°E). See area occupied by the red rectangles around Cape Inubo in Fig. 1a.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the members of the Oceanography and Geochemistry Research Department of MRI for many fruitful discussions and comments. This work is funded by MRI and is partly supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP 17K05649. Wavelet analysis was conducted using python programs translated from the Fortran by Dr. Toru Miyama. Discussion with Dr. Katsuro Katsumata with regard to the front identification method in the Southern Ocean quite helpful. Comments from the reviewers and the editor, Dr. Eitarou Oka, greatly improve the manuscript. Except for the wavelet analysis, graphics were produced with the Grid Analysis and Display System (GrADS).

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  1. Meteorological Research Institute, 1-1 Nagamine, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0052, Japan

    Hideyuki Nakano, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Kei Sakamoto, Shogo Urakawa, Takahiro Toyoda & Goro Yamanaka

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  1. Hideyuki Nakano
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Correspondence to Hideyuki Nakano.

Appendix

Appendix

There is some confusion regarding the terminology of the fronts in the Northwestern Pacific. The ambiguous terminologies have been discussed in several studies (Zhang and Hanawa 1993; Saito et al. 2007; Oka and Qiu 2012; Kida et al. 2015). This appendix focuses on the confusion regarding the term Subarctic Front (SAF). Table 2 lists the studies referring to the two northern fronts. In the list, we only include physical and geochemical studies based on observations. To aggregate a wide range of opinions, we generally list only one paper by each author. We do not include terminologies that have been used only once in the table.

The northernmost front around 42°–46°N is called the SAF or the Polar Front (PF). The 4 °C temperature at 100 m, described in Favorite et al. (1976), is commonly used as a proxy for the SAF. Roden et al. (1982) defined the PF as the southern boundary of the subsurface temperature minimum by citing Uda (1963). However, in fact, Uda’s (1963) PF corresponds to the Subarctic Frontal Zone (SAFZ), which is described later. Belkin et al. (2002) defined the PF as a qualitative change in the vertical thermohaline structure, manifesting as enhanced horizontal gradients of several indices for water masses. Zhang and Hanawa (1993) call this the Water-Mass Front. In the figures of Uda (1963), the Subarctic Boundary (SAB) is used to refer to this front. The last two nomenclatures have been rarely used.

The second front from the north (~ 39°–42°N) is called the SAB or the SAF. The proxy of the SAB is the 34.0 psu at 100 m (again based on the Favorite et al. 1976). The proxy of the SAF differs among studies, but often appears as a sharp temperature front (Roden et al. 1982) or a sharp salinity front that includes the 34.0-psu contour at 100 m (Talley 1993). In Niiler et al. (2003), the SAF refers to the dynamic front associated with the eastward flow at 38°–42°N.

The SAFZ refers to the broad region of large meridional gradients of SST and SSS (see fig. 4 of Kida et al. 2015). This region, which is bounded by the 33.0 and 33.8 isohalines in the hydrographic section, largely corresponds to the area between the two northern fronts (see also figs. 1, 4, and 6 of Kida et al. 2015). Uda (1963) calls the region the Polar Front (Region). Qiu et al. (2017) calls the region the Oyashio Extension. As the impact of SST on the atmosphere gains attention, this term has been adopted not only by oceanographers but also by climate scientists (Table 3). Sometimes the word “Zone” is omitted, and the SAFZ is also simply referred to as the “SAF” (Nakamura et al. 1997; Frankignoul et al. 2011).

Accordingly, the term SAF(Z) refers to three different features around the southern boundary of the subarctic gyre. Since these are located in close proximity to each other, they are easily misidentified when assigned the same name. The misidentification can be avoided by calling the two northern fronts the Northern and Southern SAFs, as used in Levine and White (1983) and Yaremchuk and Maximenko (2002). However, their terminology seems to imply that the SAF bifurcates, which is not always supported by our analysis. Therefore, naming these fronts remains a contestable problem.

The terminology of currents associated with the fronts seems less confused. The Subarctic Current (SAC) unambiguously refers to the current flowing along the northernmost front. Given that the terms KE and KENB refer to oceanic currents and that our analysis is based on dynamic fronts, the terms KE, KENB, and SAC appear to be appropriately chosen. As the flow along the second front from the north has not been name, we tentatively call it the SAB Current (SAB-C).

In several studies, the Kuroshio Extension Northern Branch (KENB) is called the Kuroshio Extension Bifurcation Front (Table 4). However, we consider that the term KENB is less ambiguous than KEBF, and acknowledges its location to the north of the KE.

In summary, we avoid the term SAF, which refers to various fronts. Moreover, we aim to emphasize the dynamic nature of our front analysis. To satisfy both requirements, we adopt the terms KE, KENB, SAB-C, and SAC.

Table 2 Terms and definitions of the two northernmost fronts in the western North Pacific used in previous studies
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Table 3 Terminology of the zone associated with the maximum SST gradient or the outcrop of 33.0–33.8 psu isohaline
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Table 4 Terminology of the fronts associated with the Kuroshio bifurcation
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Nakano, H., Tsujino, H., Sakamoto, K. et al. Identification of the fronts from the Kuroshio Extension to the Subarctic Current using absolute dynamic topographies in satellite altimetry products. J Oceanogr 74, 393–420 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10872-018-0470-4

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