Abstract
This study examined central propositions of conservation of resources theory in a unique work context, specifically, the associations of franchisee personal and contextual resources with franchisee performance. Data were collected from 1570 Australian franchisees from 35 different franchise networks, with franchisee financial performance and franchise citizenship rated by the franchisor executives responsible for supervising these franchisees. Franchisee proactivity, optimism, family support, and perceived organizational support were positively associated with financial performance. Franchisee affective commitment, family support, and perceived organizational support were positively associated with franchise citizenship. Moderation analyses further revealed that, at higher levels of family support, there was a positive relationship between franchisee optimism and franchisee citizenship. In addition, multilevel analyses showed that low levels of aggregated organizational support (i.e., lower means at the franchise network level) nullified the positive association of franchisee proactivity with financial performance. The findings provide valuable insights into the personal and contextual resources that are linked to performance in the context of franchising, yielding practical implications for how franchisors select, develop, and support franchisees. We apply propositions of conservation of resources theory to a unique work context and demonstrate that franchisee personal and contextual resources are associated with franchisee citizenship and financial performance.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work-family conflict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.81.4.411.
Ahlin, B., Drnovsek, M., & Hisrich, R. D. (2012). Exploring moderating effects of proactivity on the relationship between market information and innovation performance. Economic and Business Review, 14, 121–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/21639159.2016.1174541.
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, normative, and continuance commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 63(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1990.tb00506.x.
Anderson, R. L., Condon, C., & Dunkelberg, J. (1992). Are franchisees ‘real’ entrepreneurs? Journal of Business and Entrepreneurship, 4, 97–105 Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/214234839?accountid=14723.
Aguinis, H., & Vandenberg, R. J. (2014). An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure: Improving research quality before data collection. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 569–595. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091231.
Baran, B. E., Shanock, L. R., & Miller, L. R. (2012). Advancing organizational support theory into the twenty-first century world of work. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27, 123–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9236-3.
Baron, R. A., & Tang, J. (2011). The role of entrepreneurs in firm-level innovation: Joint effects of affect, creativity, and environmental dynamism. Journal of Business Venturing, 26, 49–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.06.002.
Bateman, T. S., & Crant, J. M. (1993). The proactive component of organizational behavior: A measure and correlates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14, 103–118. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030140202.
Baum, J. R., & Locke, E. A. (2004). The relationship of entrepreneurial traits, skill, and motivation to subsequent venture growth. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 587–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.587.
Baum, J. R., Locke, E. A., & Smith, K. G. (2001). A multidimensional model of venture growth. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 292–303. https://doi.org/10.2307/3069456.
Becherer, R. C., & Maurer, J. G. (1999). The proactive personality disposition and entrepreneurial behavior among small company presidents. Journal of Small Business Management, 37, 28–36 https://search.proquest.com/docview/220955939?accountid=14723.
Bergeron, D. M., Schroeder, T. D., & Martinez, H. A. (2014). Proactive personality at work: Seeing more to do and doing more? Journal of Business and Psychology, 29, 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9298-5.
Bliese, P. D. (2000). Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations (pp. 349–381). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Blumberg, M., & Pringle, C. D. (1982). The missing opportunity in organizational research: Some implications for a theory of work performance. Academy of Management Review, 7, 560–569. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.1982.4285240.
Bolino, M., Valcea, S., & Harvey, J. (2010). Employee, manage thyself: The potentially negative implications of expecting employees to behave proactively. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 325–345. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317910X493134.
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon’s mechanical turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393980.
Chang, E. P., Memili, E., Chrisman, J. J., Kellermanns, F. W., & Chua, J. H. (2009). Family and social capital, venture preparedness, and start-up decisions: A study of Hispanic entrepreneurs in New England. Family Business Review, 22, 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894486509332327.
Chua, J. H., Chrisman, J. J., & Chang, E. P. (2004). Are family firms born or made? An exploratory investigation. Family Business Review, 17(1), 37–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-6248.2004.00002.x.
Combs, J. G., Ketchen Jr., D. J., Shook, C. L., & Short, J. C. (2011). Antecedents and consequences of franchising: Past accomplishments and future challenges. Journal of Management, 37, 99–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310386963.
Cooper, A. C., Woo, C. W., & Dunkleberg, W. C. (1988). Entrepreneurs’ perceived chances for success. Journal of Business Venturing, 3, 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(88)90020-1.
Crant, J. M. (1996). The proactive personality scale as a predictor of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Small Business Management, 34, 42–49 https://search.proquest.com/docview/221002114?accountid=14723.
Craig, J. B., Dibrell, C., & Davis, P. S. (2008). Leveraging family-based brand identity to enhance firm competitiveness and performance in family businesses. Journal of Small Business Management, 46, 351–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2008.00248.x.
Dada, O., Watson, A., & Kirby, D. (2015). Entrepreneurial tendencies in franchising: Evidence from the UK. Journal of Small Businesses and Enterprise Development, 22, 82–98. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-11-2011-0021.
Davidsson, P., & Honig, B. (2003). The role of social and human capital among nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 301–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(02)00097-6.
Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315575554.
Fenwich, G. D., & Strombom, M. (1998). The determinants of franchisee performance: An empirical investigation. International Small Business Journal, 16, 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242698164002.
Foo, M. D., Uy, M. A., & Baron, R. A. (2009). How do feelings influence effort? An empirical study of entrepreneurs’ affect and venture effort. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 1086–1094. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015599.
Fraser, S., & Greene, F. J. (2006). The effects of experience on entrepreneurial optimism and uncertainty. Economica, 73, 169–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0335.2006.00488.x.
Frazer, L., Weaven, S., Grace, A., & Selvanathan, S. (2016). Franchising Australia 2014. https://www.franchise-ed.org.au/franchising/2016-survey-shows-franchising-on-the-rise-in-australia. accessed 12 July 2018.
Furmage, K. (2012). Success means working the wheel of excellence, Business Franchise AUS & NZ Vol 6, Issue 6, pg 34–35. https://issuu.com/cgbpublishing/docs/bf_magazine_6_6_1
Gartner, J. D. (2005). America’s manic entrepreneurs. The American Enterprise, 16, 18–21 https://search.proquest.com/docview/225403044?accountid=14723.
Grawitch, M.J., & Munz, D.C. (2004). Are your data nonindependent? A practical guide to evaluating nonindependence and within-group agreement. Understanding Statistics, 3(4), 231–257. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328031us0304_2.
Halbesleben, J. R. B., Neveu, J. P., Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., & Westman, M. (2014). Getting to the “COR”: Understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory. Journal of Management, 40, 1334–1364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314527130.
Hayward, M. L., Forster, W. R., Sarasvathy, S. D., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). Beyond hubris: How highly confident entrepreneurs rebound to venture again. Journal of Business Venturing, 25, 569–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.03.002.
Hing, N. (1996). Entrepreneurship by franchising: Differentiating franchisees from independent entrepreneurs by selected personality traits. Journal of Enterprising Culture, 4, 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218495896000046.
Hmieleski, K. M., & Baron, R. A. (2009). Entrepreneurs’ optimism and new venture performance: A social cognitive perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 473–488. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2009.41330755.
Ho, V. T., & Pollack, J. M. (2014). Passion isn’t always a good thing: Examining entrepreneurs’ network centrality and financial performance with a dualistic model of passion. Journal of Management Studies, 51, 433–459. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12062.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513.
Hobfoll, S. E., Freedy, J., Lane, C., & Geller, P. (1990). Conservation of social resources: Social support resource theory. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7, 465–478. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590074004.
Hobfoll, S. E. (2011). Conservation of resource caravans in engaged settings. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 116–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02016.x.
Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 103–128. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640.
Hoy, F. (1994). The dark side of franchising: Appreciating flaws in an imperfect world. International Small Business Journal, 12, 26–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242694122003.
Jawahar, I. M., & Liu, Y. (2016). Proactive personality and citizenship performance: The mediating role of career satisfaction and the moderating role of political skill. Career Development International, 21, 378–401. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-02-2015-0022.
Johns, G. (2018). Advances in the treatment of context in organizational research. Annual Review of Organizational Research, 5, 21–46. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104406.
Kickul, J., & Gundry, L. K. (2002). Prospecting for strategic advantage: The proactive entrepreneurial personality and small firm innovation. Journal of Small Business Management, 40, 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-627X.00042.
King, L. A., Mattimore, L. K., King, D. W., & Adams, G. A. (1995). Family Support Inventory for Workers: A new measure of perceived social support from family members. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16(3), 235–258. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030160306.
Koopmans, L., Bernaards, C. M., Hildebrandt, V. H., Schaufeli, W. B., de Vet, H. C. W., & van der Beek, A. J. (2011). Conceptual frameworks of individual work performance: A systematic review. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53(8), 856–866. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e318226a763.
Kreiser, P. M., & Davis, J. (2010). Entrepreneurial orientation and firm performance: The unique impact of innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 23, 39–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2010.10593472.
Landier, A., & Thesmar, D. (2009). Financial contracting with optimistic entrepreneurs. Review of Financial Studies, 22, 117–150. https://doi.org/10.1093/rfs/hhn06.
Li, N., Liang, J., & Crant, J. M. (2010). The role of proactive personality in job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior: A relational perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018079.
Lowe, R. A., & Ziedonis, A. A. (2006). Overoptimism and the performance of entrepreneurial firms. Management Science, 52, 173–186. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1050.0482.
Lumpkin, G. T., & Dess, G. G. (2001). Linking two dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation to firm performance: The moderating role of environment and industry life cycle. Journal of Business Venturing, 16, 429–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.381.
Madrid, H. P., Diaz, M. T., Leka, S., Leiva, P. I., & Barros, E. (2017). A finer grained approach to psychological capital and work performance. Journal of Business and Psychology., 33, 461–477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-017-9503-z.
Meade, A. W., & Craig, S. B. (2012). Identifying careless responses in survey data. Psychological Methods, 17, 437–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028085.
Meek, W. R., Davis-Sramek, B., Baucus, M. S., & Germain, R. N. (2011). Commitment in franchising: The role of collaborative communication and a franchisee’s propensity to leave. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35, 559–581. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00445.x.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1984). Testing the “side-bet theory” of organizational commitment: Some methodological considerations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 372–378. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.69.3.372.
Meyer, J. P., Stanley, D. J., Herscovitch, L., & Topolnytsky, L. (2002). Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: A meta-analysis of antecedents, correlates, and consequences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 20–52. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1842.
Mignonac, K., Vandenberghe, C., Perrigot, R., El Akremi, A., & Herrbach, O. (2013). A multi-study investigation of outcomes of franchisees’ affective commitment to their franchise organization. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 39, 461–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12050.
Morrison, K. A. (1997). How franchisee job satisfaction and personality affects performance, organizational commitment, franchisor relations, and intention to remain. Journal of Small Business Management, 35, 39–67 http://search.proquest.com/openview/3d5747b9168340e4dd575e5db7694c09/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=49244.
Motowidlo, S. K., Borman, W. C., & Schmit, M. J. (1997). A theory of individual differences in task and contextual performance. Human Performance, 10, 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327043hup1002_1.
Motowidlo, S. J., & Schmit, M. J. (1999). Performance assessment in unique jobs. In D. R. Ilgen & E. D. Pulakos (Eds.), The changing nature of performance (pp. 56–86). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Motowidlo, S. J., & Van Scotter, J. R. (1994). Evidence that task performance should be distinguished from contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 475–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.79.4.475.
Murphy, K. R., & Russell, C. J. (2016). End it or mend it: Redirecting the search for interactions in the organizational sciences. Organizational Research Methods, advanced online., 20, 549–573. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428115625322.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user’s guide, 8.
Nathan, G. (2007). The franchise E-factor—A franchisor’s guide to managing the franchise relationship (4th ed.). Armadale: Franchise Relationships Institute.
Nathan, G. (2008). How to make franchise advisory councils work. Armadale: Franchise Relationships Institute.
Nathan, G. (2016a). Profitable partnerships. Franchise Relationships Institute, 8th Edition, Victoria.
Nathan, G. (2016b). The Franchisor’s guide to improving field visits (3rd ed.). Armadale: Franchise Relationships Institute.
Nathan, G., Jackson, C., & Allen, J. (2008). Psycho-social predictors of franchisee success and implications for selection. Paper presented at the International Society of Franchising Conference. St Malo.
Nathan, G. (2012). Franchise excellence research report. Victoria: Franchise Relationships Institute.
Nathan, G. (2018). 10 Trends shaping the franchising sector. Franchise Leaders, 1, 36–39 https://issuu.com/marketingeyeau/docs/franchise_leaders_2018_magazine_low.
Nielsen, S. K. (2014). A multi-source model of perceived organizational support and performance. Journal of Organizational Psychology, 14(2), 78–92 Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/openview/2e1d86337d8fcb111aa576621a9ce2ff/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1576346.
Nyadzayo, M. W., Matanda, M. J., & Ewing, M. T. (2015). The impact of franchisor support, brand commitment, brand citizenship behavior, and franchisee experience on franchisee-perceived brand image. Journal of Business Research, 68, 1886–1894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.busres.2014.12.008.
O’Driscoll, M. P., & Randall, D. M. (1999). Perceived organizational support, satisfaction with rewards, and employee job involvement and organizational commitment. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48, 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1999.tb00058.x.
Organ, D. W. (2018). Organizational citizenship behavior: Recent trends and developments. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 80, 295–306. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104536.
Pavlova, M. K., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2013). Dispositional optimism fosters opportunity-congruent coping with occupational uncertainty. Journal of Personality, 81, 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00782.x.
Peterson, C., & Bossio, L. M. (2001). Optimism and physical well-being. In E. C. Chang (Ed.), Optimism & pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice (pp. 127–145). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26, 513–563. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630002600307.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, N. P., & Lee, J. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9101.88.5.879.
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interaction effects in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448. https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986031004437.
Price, V. A. (1982). Type A behavior pattern: A model for research and practice. New York: Academic Press.
PricewaterhouseCoopers (2016). The economic impact of franchised businesses, volume IV, 2016. Pricewaterhouse Coopers, Washington, DC.
Quick, J. C., Cooper, C. L., Gibbs, P. C., Little, L. M., & Nelson, D. L. (2010). Positive organizational behavior at work. In G. P. Hodgkinson & J. K. Ford (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 253–291). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Borman, C. A., & Birjulin, A. (1999). Organizational politics and organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 159–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199903)20:2<159::AID-JOB881>3.0.CO;2-7.
Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 698–714. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.87.4.698.
Saks, A. M. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21, 600–619. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940610690169.
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 201–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173489.
Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063–1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063.
Scherbaum, C. A., & Ferreter, J. M. (2009). Estimating statistical power and required sample sizes for organizational research using multilevel modeling. Organizational Research Methods, 12, 347–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428107308906.
Schmitt, A., Gielnik, M. M., Zacher, H., & Klemann, D. K. (2013). The motivational benefits of specific versus general optimism. Journal of Positive Psychology, 8, 425–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.820338.
Seibert, S. E., Grant, M. J., & Kraimer, M. L. (1999). Proactive personality and career success. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 416–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.84.3.416.
Segerstrom, S. C., Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., & Fahey, J. L. (1998). Optimism is associated with mood, coping, and immune changes in response to stress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1646–1655. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1646.
Siemsen, E., Roth, A., & Oliveira, P. (2010). Common method bias in regression models with linear, quadratic, and interaction effects. Organizational Research Methods, 13, 456–476. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428109351241.
Steier, L. (2007). New venture creation and organization: A familial sub-narrative. Journal of Business Research, 60, 1099–1107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.12.017.
Tasnim, R., Yahya, S., & Zainuddin, M. N. (2014). “I’m loving it!” What makes the successful entrepreneur affectively committed to entrepreneurial performance? The Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 19, 27–52. https://doi.org/10.9774/GLEAF.3709.2014.ap.00004.
Tornau, K., & Frese, M. (2013). Construct Clean-Up in Proactivity Research: A Meta-Analysis on the Nomological Net of Work-Related Proactivity Concepts and Their Incremental Validities. Applied Psychology, 62, 44–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00514.x.
Ucbasarn, D., Westhead, P., Wright, M., & Flores, M. (2010). The nature of entrepreneurial experience, business failure and comparative optimism. Journal of Business Venturing, 25, 541–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.04.001.
Van Scotter, J. R., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1996). Interpersonal facilitation and job dedication as separate facets of contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 525–531.
Von Bergen, C. W., & Bressler, M. S. (2011). Too much positive thinking hinders entrepreneur success. Journal of Business and Entrepreneurship, 23, 30–52 Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/919609828?accountid=14723.
Westman, M., Hobfoll, S.E., Chen, S., Davidson, O.B., & Laski, S. (2004). Organizational stress through the lens of conservation of resources (COR) theory. In Perrewe, P.L., & Ganster, D.C. (ed.) Exploring interpersonal dynamics (research in occupational stress and well-being (Vol. 4, pp.167–220). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Weaven, S., & Frazer, L. (2007). Expansion through multiple unit franchising: Australian franchisors reveal their motivations. International Small Business Journal, 25, 173–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242607074524.
Youssef, C. M., & Luthans, F. (2007). Positive organizational behavior in the workplace: The impact of hope, optimism, and resilience. Journal of Management, 33, 774–800. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307305562.
Zacher, H., Schmitt, A., & Gielnik, M. M. (2012). Stepping into my shoes: Generativity as a mediator between family business owners' age and family succession. Ageing & Society, 32, 673–696. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X11000547.
Zacher, H., Schmitt, A., Jimmieson, N. L., & Rudolph, C. W. (2018). Dynamic effects of personal initiative on engagement and exhaustion: The role of mood, autonomy, and support. Journal of Organizational Behavior. Online first publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2277.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
Franchisor Performance Ratings
Please rate the franchisee on the criteria below. Where possible refer to data or objective criteria to guide your ratings. If the franchisee operates more than one unit, rate average performance across the units.
-
1.
Considering their site or territory, and how long they have been operating the business, how would you rate their sales figures?
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Well below expectations | Below expectations | As expected | Above expectations | Well above expectations |
-
2.
Please indicate below to show where their business would sit in terms of sales performance when compared to the other operators in your system?
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
-
3.
How would you rate their profit performance compared with group benchmarks? (please use whatever profit measures you have)
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
In the bottom 20% | Below average | Around average | Above average | In the top 20% |
-
4.
How compliant have they been to operating standards of your brand/company? (e.g., consider compliance scores, breach notices)
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Poor compliance | Below acceptable | Just acceptable | Very good | Exceptional compliance |
-
5.
How constructively have they participated in the group activities of your brand/company? (e.g., consider meetings, field visits, conferences, committees)
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Very negative | At odds or absent | Moderately positive | Very positive | Extremely positive |
-
6.
To your knowledge how trustworthy have they been in providing accurate and reliable information?
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Problematic | Unreliable | Seems satisfactory | Reliable | Outstanding |
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Parker, S.L., Cutts, S., Nathan, G. et al. Understanding Franchisee Performance: The Role of Personal and Contextual Resources. J Bus Psychol 34, 603–620 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-018-9558-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-018-9558-5