Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Exclusionary Discipline for English Learners: A National Analysis

  • Review Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Exclusionary discipline disproportionally effect students from underrepresented groups and English Learners are one group that has received minimal attention in this area. Using data from the U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection, we examined exclusionary discipline practices (i.e., suspensions and expulsions) involving English Learners with and without disabilities. English Learners comprised 10.1% of the student population. Nationally, odds of exclusion for English Learners with and without disabilities ranged from OR = 0.02 to OR = 0.05, but varied drastically by individual states (range: OR= 0.08 to OR = 7.79). Implications for research, policy, and practice are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force [APA]. 2008). Are zero tolerance policies effective in the schools?. American Psychologist, 63(9), 852–862. 10.1037/0003-066X.63.9.852..

  • Anderson, K. P., & Ritter, G. W. (2017). Disparate use of exclusionary discipline: Evidence on inequities in school discipline from a U. S. state. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 25(49), 1–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anyon, Y., Jenson, J. M., Atschul, I., Farrar, J., McQueen, J., Eldrige, G., & Simmons, J. (2014). The persistent effect of race and the promise of alternatives to suspension in school discipline outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.06.025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aud, S., Fox, M. A., & KewalRamani, A. (2010). Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic groups (NCES 2010-015). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson, B., & Laughter, J. (2016). The theory and practice of culturally relevant education: A synthesis of research across content areas. Review of Educational Research, 86, 163–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bal, A., & Perzigian, A. B. T. (2013). Evidence-based interventions for immigrant students experiencing behavioral and academic problems: A systematic review of the literature. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(4), 5–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, A. (2015). Suspension, expulsion, and achievement of English learner students in six Oregon districts (REL 2015–094). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northwest.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callahan, R., Wilkinson, L., Muller, C., & Frisco, M. (2009). ESL placement and schools: Effects on immigrant achievement. Educational Policy, 23(2), 355–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904807310034.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Children’s Defense Fund. (1975). School suspensions: Are they helping children?. Cambridge, MA: Washington Research Project.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cramer, E. D., & Bennett, K. D. (2015). Implementing culturally responsive positive behavior interventions and supports in middle school classrooms. Middle School Journal, 46(3), 18–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, B. A., & Williams, S. A. (2008). The impact of language status as an acculturative stressor on internalizing and externalizing behaviors among Latino/a children: A longitudinal analysis from school entry to third grade. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 399–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9233-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobbins, N., & Rodriquez, C. D. (2013). Providing support for English language learners with behavioral needs. Intervention in School and Clinic, 48, 152–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donovan, M. S. & Cross, C. T. (Eds.) (2002). Minority students in special education and gifted education. National Research Council Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Every Student Succeeds Act [ESSA]. (2015). Public Law 114-95. 20 U.S.C. § 1177 et seq.

  • Fabelo, T., Thompson, M. D., Plotkin, M., Carmichael, D., Marchbanks, M. P., & Booth, E. A. (2011). Breaking schools’ rules: A statewide study of how school discipline relates to students’ success and juvenile justice involvement. New York, NY: Council of State Governments Justice Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fallon, L. M., O’Keefe, B. V., & Sugai, G. (2012). Consideration of culture and context in school-wide positive behavior support: A review of current literature. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(4), 209–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fontenot, J. L., Hayes, S. L., & Frilot, C. (2011). Language deficits and behavior problems in children placed in alternate education settings. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders, 38, 36–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez, R. J., Pagan, M., Wendell, L., & Love, C. (2011). Supporting ELL/culturally and linguistically diverse students for academic achievement. Rexford, NY: International Center for Leadership in Education, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, S. (2014). Zero benefit: Estimating the effect of zero tolerance discipline polices on racial disparities in school discipline. Educational Policy, 28, 69–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904812453999.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., & Anderson, C. M. (2010). Examining the evidence base for school-wide positive behavior support. Focus on Exceptionality, 42(8), 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J. S., Jaser, S. S., Vaughan, E. L., Reynolds, J. S., DiDonato, J., Bernard, S. N., & Hernandez-Brereton, M. (2010). Patterns in office referral data by grade, race/ethnicity, and gender. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12(1), 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300708329710.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linquanti, R., Cook, H. G., Bailey, A. L., & MacDonald, R. (2016). Moving toward a more common definition of English learner: Collected guidance for states and multi-state assessment consortia. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Losen, D. J. (2011). Discipline policies, successful schools, and racial justice. Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center. http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/discipline-policies.

  • Losen, D. J., Hodson, C. L., Keith, M. A., Morrison, K., & Belway, S. (2015). Are we closing the school discipline gap?. Los Angeles, CA: University of California, Los Angeles, Civil Rights Project.

    Google Scholar 

  • Losen, D. J., & Martinez, T. E. (2013). Out of school & off track: The overuse of suspensions in American middle and high schools. Los Angeles, CA: University of California, Los Angeles, Civil Rights Project.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, E. W., & Hanson, M. J. (2011). Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, A., McMahon, S. D., & Treger, S. (2016). Individual- and school-level predictors of student office disciplinary referrals. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 24, 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426615588289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFarland, J., Hussar, B., de Brey, C., Snyder, T., Wang, X., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., …Hinz, S. (2017). The condition of education 2017 (NCES 2017-144). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

  • McFarland, J., Stark, P., & Cui, J. (2016). Trends in high school dropout and completion rates in the United States: 2013 (NCES 2016-117). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

  • Migration Policy Institute [MPI]. (2016). ELL information center. http://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/ell-information-center

  • Milner, R. M., & Tenore, F. B. (2010). Classroom management in diverse classrooms. Urban Education, 45(5), 560–603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Assessment of Educational Progress [NAEP]. (2015). The Nation’s Report Card. https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/

  • Parrish, T. (2002). Racial disparities in the identification, funding, and provision of special education. In D. J. Losen & G. Orfield (Eds.), Racial inequality in special education (pp. 15–37). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patel, S. G., Staudenmeyer, A. H., Wickham, R., Firmender, W. M., Fields, L., & Miller, A. B. (2017). War-exposed newcomer adolescent immigrants facing daily life stressors in the United States. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 60, 120–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, J. B., Katsiyannis, A., Peterson, R., & Chmelar, B. (2007). IDEA 2004 and disciplining students with disabilities. NASSP Bulletin, 91, 130–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samson, J. F., & Lesaux, N. K. (2009). Language-minority learners in special education: Rates and predictors of identification for services. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(2), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219408326221.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, T. B., & Barrett, S. B. (2004). Using staff and student time engaged in disciplinary procedure to evaluate the impact of school-wide PBS. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(1), 21–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007040060010401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegle, D., Gubbins, E. J., O’Rourke, P., Dulong-Langley, S., Mun, R. U., Luria, S. R., & Plucker, J. A. (2016). Barriers to underserved students’ participation in gifted programs and possible solutions. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 39(2), 103–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353216640930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skiba, R. J., Chung, C. G., Trachok, M., Baker, T. L., & Sheya, A. (2014). Parsing disciplinary disproportionality: Contributions of infraction, student, and school characteristics to out-of-school suspension and expulsion. American Educational Research Journal, 51(4), 640–670. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214541670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C. G., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1), 85–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, E., Witmer, S. E., & Schmitt, H. (2017). English language learners and reading instruction: A review of the literature. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 61(2), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2016.1219301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sprague, J. R., Vincent, C. G., Tobin, T. J., & Pavel, M. (2013). Preventing disciplinary exclusions of students from American Indian/Alaska Native backgrounds. In J. S. Kaye (Chair). Summit conducted at the National Leadership Summit on School-Justice Partnerships: Keeping Kids in School and Out of Court, New York City. http://school-justicesummit.org/papers/paper_6.cfm

  • The Center for Civil Rights Remedies. (2013). A summary of new research closing the school discipline gap: Research to policy. Los Angeles, CA: University of California, Los Angeles, Civil Rights Project.

    Google Scholar 

  • Umansky, I. M. (2016). To be or not to be EL: An examination of the impact of classifying students as English learners. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(4), 714–737. https://doi.org/10.3102/016237371664802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights [USDOE]. (2018). Data and research: Civil rights data collection(CRDC). https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/data.html?src=rt

  • United States Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights [USDOE]. (2014). Civil rights data collection data snapshot: School discipline. http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-discipline-snapshot.pdf

  • U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, & the U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division [USDOE/OCR]. (2014). Joint “Dear Colleague” Letter. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/crt/legacy/2014/01/08/dcl.pdf

  • United States Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development Policy and Program Studies Service [USDOE]. (2016a). Educational experiences of English learners: College preparatory courses and programs, 2011-12. https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/title-iii/crdc-college-prep-courses.pdf

  • United States Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development Policy and Program Studies Service [USDOE]. (2016b). Educational experiences of English learners: Grade retention, high school graduation, and GED attainment, 2011-12. https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/title-iii/crdc-retention-completion.pdf

  • Vincent, C. G., Sprague, J. R., & Tobin, T. J. (2012). Exclusionary discipline practices across students’ racial/ethnic backgrounds and disability status: Findings from the Pacific Northwest. Education and Treatment of Children, 35(4), 585–601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, C., Curran, M., & Tomlinson-Clarke, S. (2003). Culturally responsive classroom management: Awareness into action. Theory into Practice, 42(4), 269–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitford, D. K. (2017). School discipline disproportionality: American Indian students in special education. The Urban Review, 49 ( 5 ), 693-706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-017-0417-x

  • Whitford, D. K., Katsiyannis, A., & Counts, J. (2016). Discriminatory discipline: Trends and issues. NASSP Bulletin, 100(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192636516677340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitford, D. K., & Levine-Donnerstein, D. (2014). Office disciplinary referral patterns of American Indian students from elementary school through high school. Behavioral Disorders, 39(2), 78–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiley, T. G., & Wright, W. E. (2004). Against the undertow: Language-minority education policy and politics in the “age of accountability. Educational Policy, 18(1), 142–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904803260030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Hakeem Wahab, Statistical Consultant in the Purdue College of Science, Department of Statistics, for his assistance with SAS coding and output interpretation.

Author Contributions

D.K.W. designed and executed the study, ran data analyses, and collaborated with the writing and editing of the final manuscript. A.K. collaborated with the design, writing, and editing of the study and manuscript. J.C. assisted with writing the introduction. K.M.C. assisted with data coding, analysis, writing, and editing of the final manuscript. M.C. assisted with writing part of the discussion.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Denise K. Whitford.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

For this type of study formal consent is not required. This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was not obtained, because there were no individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Whitford, D.K., Katsiyannis, A., Counts, J. et al. Exclusionary Discipline for English Learners: A National Analysis. J Child Fam Stud 28, 301–314 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1278-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1278-y

Keywords

Navigation