Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Longitudinal Study of Children Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder Before Age Three: School Services at Three Points Time for Three Levels of Outcome Disability

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study follows 70 children determined to have Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) before age three (Time 1). Parents filled out questionnaires and standardized measures about their child when he/she was school-aged (Time 2), including information about their children’s preschool, kindergarten, and grade school educational settings. At Time 2, the researchers placed children in three diagnostic groups of No ASD, ASD-Higher Functioning, and ASD-Lower Functioning. Retrospective results showed that most children were receiving intensive services at the preschool level. In kindergarten, there was some divergence among the three groups, with more intensive services continuing for the ASD groups. At school age, classroom placement and services reflected service patterns that were consistent with these three levels of disability.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, D. K., Liang, J. W., & Lord, C. (2014). Predicting young adult outcome among more and less cognitively able individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 485–494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, D. K., Oti, R. S., Lord, C., & Welch, C. (2009). Patterns of growth in adaptive social abilities among children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 1019–1034.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baghdadli, A., Assouline, B., Sonie, S., Pernon, E., Darrou, C., Picot, M., … Pry, R. (2012). Developmental trajectories of adaptive behaviors from early childhood to adolescence in a cohort of 152 children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 1314–1325.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bal, V. H., Kim, S. H., Cheong, D., & Lord, C. (2015). Daily living skills in individuals with autism spectrum disorder from 2 to 21 years of age. Autism, 19, 774–784.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnevik-Olsson, M., Lundstrom, S., Westerlund, J., Giacobini, M. B., Gillberg, C., & Fernell, E. (2016). Preschool to school in autism: Neuropsychiatric problems 8 years after diagnosis at 3 years of age. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 2749–2755.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bitterman, A., Daley, T. C., Misra, S., Carlson, E., & Markowitz, J. (2008). A national sample of preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders: Special education services and parent satisfaction. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1509–1517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., Bronen, R., Spencer, S., Haut, S., Berg, A., Oliver, P., & Tyrer, P. (2006). Rating scales, scales of measurement, issues of reliability: Resolving some critical issues for clinicians and researchers. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194, 557–564. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000230392.83607.c5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, H., Amerine-Dickens, M., & Smith, T. (2006). Early intensive behavioral treatment: Replication of the UCLA model in a community setting. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 27, S145–S162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eaves, L. C., & Ho, H. H. (1997). School placement and academic achievement in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 9, 277–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farley, M. A., McMahon, W. M., Fombonne, E., Jenson, W. R., Miller, J., Gardner, M., … Coon, H. (2009). Twenty-year outcome for individuals with autism with average and near-average cognitive abilities. Autism Research, 2, 109–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer, C., Swineford, L., Swedo, S. E., & Thurm, A. (2018). Classifying and characterizing the development of adaptive behavior in a naturalistic longitudinal study of young children with autism. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 10, 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-017-9222-9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fein, D., Barton, M., Eigsti, I. M., Naigles, L., Schultz, R. T., Steven, M., … Tyson, K. (2013). Optimal outcome in individuals with a history of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 195–205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fein, D., Dixon, P., Paul, J., & Levin, H. (2005). Brief report: Pervasive developmental disorder can evolve into ADHD: Case illustrations. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 525–534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fountain, C., Winter, A. S., & Bearman, P. S. (2012). Six developmental trajectories characterize children with autism. Pediatrics, 129, e1112–e1120.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ganz, M. L. (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 343–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilliam, J. E. (1995). Gilliam Autism Rating Scale. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilliam, J. E. (2013). Gilliam Autism Rating Scale-3. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, S. L., & Handleman, J. S. (2000). Age and IQ at intake as predictors for placement for young children with autism: A four- to six-year follow-up. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 137–142.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helt, M., Kelley, E., Kinsbourne, M., Pandey, J., Boorstein, H., Herbert, H., & Fein, D. (2008). Can children with autism recover? If so, how? Neuropsychology Review, 18, 339–366.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Goode, S., Hutton, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Adult outcome for children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 212–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, E., Paul, J. J., Fein, D., & Naigles, L. (2006). Residual language deficits in optimal outcome children with a history of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 807–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0111-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, J. M., Ventola, P. E., Pandey, J., Verbalis, A. D., Barton, M., Hodgson, S., … Fein, D. (2008). Diagnostic stability in very young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 606–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0427-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mandy, W., Murin, M., Baykaner, O., Staunton, S., Hellreigel, J., Anderson, S., & Skuse, D. (2015). The transition from primary to secondary school in mainstream education for children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 20, 5–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2011). Impact of IQ, age, SES, gender, and race on autistic symptoms. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 749–757.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pugliese, C. E., Anthony, L., Strang, J. F., Dudley, K., Wallace, G. L., Naiman, D. Q., & Kenworthy, L. (2016). Longitudinal examination of adaptive behavior in autism spectrum disorders: Influence of executive function. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 467–477.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sallows, G. O., & Graupner, T. D. (2005). Intensive behavioral treatment for children with autism: Four-year outcomes and predictors. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 110(6), 417–438.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharpe, D. L., & Baker, D. L. (2007). Financial issues associated with having a child with Autism. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 28, 247–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T., Groen, A., & Wynn, J. (2000). Randomized trial of intensive early intervention for children with pervasive developmental disorder. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 105, 269–285.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, M., Iosif, A. M., Reinhardt, V. P., Libero, L. E., Nordahl, C. W., Ozonoff, S., … Amaral, D. G. (2018). What will my child’s future hold? Phenotypes of intellectual development in 2–8-year-olds with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 11, 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1884.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, S., Cicchetti, D., & Balla, D. (2005). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Saulnier, C. A. (2016). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (3rd ed.). Bloomington: NCS Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, M. C., Fein, D. A., Dunn, M., Allen, D., Waterhouse, L. H., Feinstein, C., & Rapin, I. (2000). Subgroups of children with autism by cluster analysis: A Longitudinal examination. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 346–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szatmari, P., Georgiades, S., Duku, E., Bennett, T. A., Bryson, S., Fombonne, E., … Thompson, A. (2015). Developmental trajectories of symptom severity and adaptive functioning in an inception cohort of preschool children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association, 72, 276–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, K. C., Morrissey, J. P., & McLaurin, C. (2007). Use of autism-related services by families and children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 818–829.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Towle, P. O., Visintainer, P. F., O'Sullivan, C., Bryant, N. E., & Busby, S. (2009). Detecting autism spectrum disorder from early intervention charts: Methodology and preliminary findings. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 444–412.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Towle, P. O., Vacant-Shova, K., Shah, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2014). School-aged functioning of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder before age three: Parent-reported diagnostic, adaptive, medication, and school placement outcomes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 1357–1372.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viera, A. J., & Garrett, J. M. (2005). Understanding interobserver agreement: The kappa statistic. Family Medicine, 37, 360–363.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Visser, J. C., Rommelse, N. N. J., Lappenschaar, M., Servatius-Oosterling, I. J., Greven, C. U., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2017). Variations in the early trajectories of autism symptoms is related to the development of language, cognition, and behavior problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 56, 659–668.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, L., O’Reilly, M., Kuhn, M., Gevarter, C., Lancioni, G. E., Sigafoos, J., & Lang, R. (2015). A review of peer-mediated social interaction interventions for students with autism in inclusive settings. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 1070–1083.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, E. I., Wallace, G. L., Bascom, J., Armour, A. C., Register-Brown, K., Popal, H. S., … Kenworthy, L. (2017). Sex differences in parent-reported executive functioning and adaptive behavior in children and young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 10, 1653-1662.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • White, S. W., Scahill, L., Klin, A., Koenig, K., & Volkmar, F. R. (2007). Educational placements and service use patterns of individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1403–1412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0281-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, N., Beidel, D. C., Sarver, D. E., & Sims, V. (2012). Facial emotion recognition in children with high functioning autism and children with social phobia. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 43, 775–794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0296-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodman, A. C., Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. (2016). Contextual factors predict patterns of change in functioning over 10 years among adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 176–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woolfenden, S., Sarkozy, V., Ridley, G., & Williams, K. (2012). A systematic review of the diagnostic stability of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 345–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research was supported in part through Grant No. T73MC29073 from the Health Resources and Services Administration. We are very grateful to the families who participated in the research study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Westchester Institute for Human Development, 329 Cedarwood Hall, Valhalla, NY, 10595, USA

    Patricia O. Towle

  2. Office of People With Developmental Disabilities - Finger Lakes DDSO, Rochester, NY, USA

    Karyn Vacanti-Shova

  3. Department of Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, NY, USA

    Ann Higgins-D’Alessandro

  4. Cerebral Palsy of Westchester, Rye Brook, NY, USA

    Ashley Ausikaitis

  5. Young Adult Institute, New York, NY, USA

    Caitlyn Reynolds

Authors
  1. Patricia O. Towle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Karyn Vacanti-Shova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ann Higgins-D’Alessandro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ashley Ausikaitis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Caitlyn Reynolds
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

POT conceived of and designed the study, directed data collection, performed the statistical analysis, and drafted the manuscript. KVS collected data and participated in measurement and data analysis. AA and CR collected data and participated in manuscript writing. All authors reviewed the manuscript critically and approved the final version.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Patricia O. Towle.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Towle, P.O., Vacanti-Shova, K., Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. et al. A Longitudinal Study of Children Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder Before Age Three: School Services at Three Points Time for Three Levels of Outcome Disability. J Autism Dev Disord 48, 3747–3760 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3606-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3606-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation