Abstract
This study examines sex differences in the risk threshold for adolescent delinquency. Analyses were based on longitudinal data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study (n = 503) and the Pittsburgh Girls Study (n = 856). The study identified risk factors, promotive factors, and accumulated levels of risks as predictors of delinquency and nondelinquency, respectively. The risk thresholds for boys and girls were established at two developmental stages (late childhood: ages 10–12 years, and adolescence: ages 13–16 years) and compared between boys and girls. Sex similarities as well as differences existed in risk and promotive factors for delinquency. ROC analyses revealed only small sex differences in delinquency thresholds, that varied by age. Accumulative risk level had a linear relationship with boys’ delinquency and a quadratic relationship with girls’ delinquency, indicating stronger effects for girls at higher levels of risk.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
In the literature a distinction is made between promotive and protective factors. Protective factors refer to factors that moderate the effect of risk factors on problem behavior. There should be an interaction effect with risk factors to be denoted a protective factor (see for example Rutter 1987). In our study we refer to factors that directly decrease the probability of delinquency, there is no need for interaction with risk factors. In line with previous literature, we refer to these factors as promotive factors.
The large number of tests is done to create a subset of variables on which to run a comprehensive analysis, to filter out those that are not relevant. Subsequently, boys and girls are compared. So, while this increases the risk for type I errors because of the multiple testing, this occurs for boys as well as girls. For that reason, the comparison is still valid.
Sensitivity and specificity at the selected threshold for late childhood delinquency were respectively 0.57 and 0.69 for boys and respectively 0.74 and 0.63 for girls.
Sensitivity and specificity at the selected threshold for adolescent delinquency were respectively 0.47 and 0.85 for boys and respectively 0.67 and 0.74 for girls.
These results are not presented here, but are available from the first author.
See footnote 5.
References
Alemagno, S. A., Shaffer-King, E., & Hammel, R. (2006). Juveniles in detention: how do girls differ from boys? Journal of Correctional Health Care, 12, 45–53.
Belknap, J., & Holsinger, K. (2006). The gendered nature of risk factors for delinquency. Feminist Criminology, 1, 48–71.
Chamberlain, P., & Moore, K. (2002). Chaos and trauma in the lives of adolescent females with antisocial behavior and delinquency. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 6, 79–108.
Cloninger, C. R., & Gottesman, I. I. (1987). Genetic and environmental factors in antisocial behavior disorders. In S. A. Mednick, T. E. Moffitt, & S. A. Stack (Eds.), The causes of crime: New biological approaches (pp. 92–109). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Daly, K. (1994). Gender, crime, and punishment. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Ageton, S. S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Eme, R. F. (1992). Selective females affliction in the developmental disorders of childhood: a literature review. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 354.
Emeka, T. Q., & Sorensen, J. R. (2009). Female juvenile risk: is there a need for gendered assessment instruments? Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 7, 313–330.
Gavazzi, S. M., Yarcheck, C. M., & Chesney-Lind, M. (2006). Global risk indicators and the role of gender in a juvenile detention sample. Criminal Justice Behavior, 33, 597–612.
Gover, A. R. (2004). Childhood sexual abuse, gender, and depression among incarcerated youth. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 683–696.
Hoeve, M., Dubas, J. S., Eichelsheim, V., van der Laan, P., Smeenk, W., & Gerris, J. (2009). The relationship between parenting and delinquency: a meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 749–775.
Hubbard, D. J., & Pratt, T. C. (2002). A meta-analysis of the predictors of delinquency among girls. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 34, 1–13.
Johansson, P., & Kempf-Leonard, K. (2009). A gender-specific pathway to serious, violent, and chronic offending? Exploring Howell’s risk factors for serious delinquency. Crime & Delinquency, 55, 216–240.
Junger-Tas, J., Haen-Marshall, I., & Ribeaud, D. (2003). Delinquency in an international perspective: The International Self-Reported Delinquency Study (ISRD). Amsterdam: Kugler.
Junger-Tas, J., Ribeaud, D., & Cruyff, M. (2004). Juvenile delinquency and gender. European Journal of Criminology, 1, 333–375.
Kataoka, S. H., Zima, B. T., Dupre, D. A., Moreno, K. A., Yang, X., & McCracken, J. T. (2001). Mental health problems and service use among female juvenile offenders: their relationship to criminal history. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 549–555.
Keenan, K., Hipwell, A., Chung, T., Stepp, S., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & McTigue, K. (2010). The Pittsburgh girls study: overview and initial findings. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 506–521.
Lederman, C. S., Dakof, G. A., Larrea, M. A., & Li, H. (2004). Characteristics of adolescent females in juvenile detention. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 27, 321–337.
Lipsey, M. W., & Derzon, J. H. (1998). Predictors of violent or serious delinquency in adolescence and early adulthood: A synthesis of longitudinal research. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 86–105). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W. B. (1998). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Explanatory factors in childhood and adolescence. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & White, H. R. (2008). Violence and serious theft: Development and prediction from childhood to adulthood. New York: Routledge.
Loeber, R., Slot, N. W., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2008). A cumulative developmental model of risk and promotive factors. In R. Loeber, N. W. Slot, P. H. Van der Laan, & M. Hoeve (Eds.), Tomorrow’s criminals. The development of child delinquency and effective interventions (pp. 133–161). Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.
Maguin, E., & Loeber, R. (1996). Academic performance and delinquency. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice (pp. 259–281). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McFall, R. M., & Treat, T. A. (1999). Quantifying the information value of clinical assessments with signal detection theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 215–241.
Moffitt, T. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behaviour: Conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin longitudinal study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2005). Assessing macro-level predictors and theories of crime: a meta-analysis. Crime and Justice, 32, 373–450.
Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children’s responses to stress and disadvantage. In M. W. Kent & J. E. Rolf (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology (Social competence in children, Vol. 3, pp. 49–74). Hanover: University Press of New England.
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316–331.
Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Barocas, R., Zax, M., & Greenspan, S. (1987). Intelligence quotient scores of 4-yearold children: social-environmental risk factors. Pediatrics, 79, 343–350.
Sameroff, A. J., Bartko, W. T., Baldwin, A., Baldwin, C., & Seifer, R. (1998). Family and social influences on the development of child competence. In M. Wei & C. Fairing (Eds.), Families, risk, and competence. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Simourd, L., & Andrews, D. A. (1994). Correlates of delinquency: a look at gender differences. Forum on Corrections Research, 6, 26–31.
Slotboom, A., Wong, T. M. L., Swier, C., & Van der Broek, T. C. (2011). Delinquente meisjes: Achtergronden, risicofactoren en interventies. [Delinquent girls: Background characteristics, risk factors and interventions]. Den Haag: Boom Juridische uitgevers.
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Zhang, Q., Van Kammen, W., & Maguin, E. (1993). The double edge of protective and risk factors for delinquency: interrelations and developmental patterns. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 683–701.
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Wei, E., Farrington, D., & Wikström, P. (2002). Risk and promotive effects in the explanation of persistent serious delinquency in boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 111–123.
Swets, J. A. (1964). Signal detection and recognition by human observers. Contemporary readings. New York: Wiley.
Van der Laan, A. M., & Blom, M. (2006). Jeugddelinquentie: Risico’s en bescherming. Bevindingen uit de WODC Monitor Zelfgerapporteerde Jeugdcriminaliteit 2005. [Juvenile delinquency: Risks and protective factors. Findings of the WODC Youth Delinquency Survey, 2005]. Den Haag: Boom Juridische uitgevers.
Van der Laan, A. M., & Van der Schans, C. (2010). Delinquente meisjes: Zijn ze anders dan jongens? Risico- en beschermende factoren bij jongeren die een basisraadsonderzoek ondergaan. [Delinquent girls: Do they differ from boys? Risk and promotive factors of juveniles getting a prescreen by the Child Protection Board]. Tijdschrift voor Orthopedagogiek, 49, 149–162.
Wong, T.M.L., Slotboom, A., Bijleveld, C.C.J. H., Van Lier, P.A.C., Meeus, W.H.J. & Koot, J.M. (submitted). The sex differences in delinquency: Do girls need a bigger push?
Wong, T. M. L., Slotboom, A., & Bijleveld, C. C. J. H. (2010). Risk factors of delinquency of adolescent and young adult females: a European review. European Journal of Criminology, 7, 266–284.
Wong, T. M. L., Blom, M., & Van der Laan, A. (2012). De inhaalslag van vrouwen? Omvang, aard en trends in criminaliteit onder meisjes en vrouwen. [The catch-up of females? The extent, nature and trends of criminality among girls and woman]. In A. Slotboom, M. Hoeve, P. van der Helm, & M. Ezinga (Eds.), Criminele meisjes en vrouwen: Achtergronden en aanpak. Den Haag: Boom Juridische Uitgevers.
Youden, W. J. (1950). An index for rating diagnostic tests. Cancer, 3(32), 35.
Zahn, M. A. (2009). The delinquent girl. Philedelphia: Temple University Press.
Zahn, M. A., Day, J. C., Mihalic, S. F., & Tichavsky, L. (2009). Determining what works for girls in the juvenile justice system: a summary of evaluation evidence. Crime & Delinquency, 55, 266–293.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Rebecca Stallings and Deena Battista for their help with the data preparation.
The writing of this paper was supported by grant 2005-JK-FX-0001 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), grants MH 056630, 50778 and 73941 from the National Institute of Mental Health, grant No. 11018 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and a grant from the Department of Health of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wong, T.M.L., Loeber, R., Slotboom, AM. et al. Sex and Age Differences in the Risk Threshold for Delinquency. J Abnorm Child Psychol 41, 641–652 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9695-7
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9695-7