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Subnational governments in transnational networks for sustainable development

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Abstract

Since the 1970s, subnational entities such as provinces, states or regions have joined together in transnational associations based upon common interests, especially in Europe. Such transnational networks of subnational governments have also been created in the sphere of sustainable development, a policy domain that is largely shaped in multilateral decision-making settings and that is characterized by complexity and uncertainty, urging policy-makers to learn from other governments. Those networks have both external and internal objectives. On the one hand, they want to represent their members at international organizations and influence multilateral decision-making. On the other hand, they are aimed at fostering cooperation between subnational governments and at stimulating policy learning. After presenting a typology of existing networks in the sphere of sustainable development, the article presents a comparative analysis of the participation of the Belgian entities Flanders and Wallonia in ENCORE (Environmental Conference of the European Regions) and nrg4SD (Network of Regional Governments for Sustainable Development). The research shows that Flanders and Wallonia use networks mostly for formal and informal cooperation but not for influencing multilateral decision-making for sustainable development. The external dimension of the networks, however, is applied for identity politics. The analysis also demonstrates that little political capital is invested in the networks.

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Notes

  1. Although we reserve the term ‘region’ to denote the level of governance above the nation-state, in some countries (such as France or Italy) it is the usual term to refer to the subnational level.

  2. As Betsill and Bulkeley (2006) demonstrate, those three types of transnational networks describe structures with a predominantly non-governmental character. Transnational networks of subnational governments do not fall into those categories, since they operate mainly in the governmental sphere, albeit at the subnational level.

  3. According to article 203 of the Treaty establishing the European Community national governments can be represented in the Council of Ministers by members of subnational governments as long as these representatives defend national interests (Hooghe and Marks 2001).

  4. The mapping exercise focused only on networks that fall within the scope of our definition. For that reason, networks which do not have subnational governments as their members (e.g. Association of European Border Regions, AEBR, which consists of cross-border regions) or mixed networks that bring together subnational governments and other actors such as local authorities (e.g. Council of European Municipalities and Regions, CEMR), national governments or agencies (e.g. the Alps-Adriatic Working Community or Lisbon Regions Network, LRN), cross-border regions (e.g. Peri Urban Regions Platform Europe, PURPLE) or European institutions (e.g. Environmental Platform of Regional Offices, EPRO) are not included. Moreover, we only focused on networks that operate in the area of sustainable development. Several networks pay attention to sustainable development as a policy area, but to a varying degree. We therefore considered existing networks (through an analysis of their official websites, activity reports and other documents) and looked at how the networks concentrate on sustainable development as an overarching policy issue, either in activities directed towards their members, or in operations at the international level.

  5. More detailed information on Belgian federalism and the situation of the Belgian subnational entities can be found in Fournier and Reuchamps (2009), Hooghe et al. (2008) or Swenden et al. (2006).

  6. With this forum, several networks (including AIRF, CPMR and nrg4SD) want to join forces and express their common voice at the global level (Happaerts et al. 2010). Interviews show that members of CPMR and nrg4SD were reluctant towards the establishment of FOGAR. They felt that both networks should focus on their own members and on their internal issues and problems.

  7. In contrast, Flanders invests political capital in other networks such as the Four Motors for Europe or REGLEG (of which it assumed the 2008 presidency). This supports the hypothesis that the lack of commitment to nrg4SD or ENCORE is due to the topic of sustainable development itself.

  8. The literature on policy learning shows that policy-makers are likely to look at the experiences of those governments with which they share linguistic, historical or cultural linkages (see Holzinger and Knill 2005).

  9. Although the formalization of transnational networks of subnational governments indeed seems to guard smaller networks from fading away (as the cases of RES and SER suggest), it is unsure whether it affects their ability to influence multilateral decision-making.

Abbreviations

AEBR:

Association of European Border Regions

AER:

Assembly of European Regions

AIRF:

Association Internationale des Régions Francophones

CEMR:

Council of European Municipalities and Regions

CPMR:

Conference of Peripheral Maritime Regions in Europe

ECREIN:

European Clusters and Regions for Eco-innovation and Eco-investments Network

ENCORE:

Environmental Conference of the European Regions

EPRO:

Environmental Platform of Regional Offices

EU:

European Union

FOGAR:

Forum of Global Associations of Regions

IRE:

Innovating Regions in Europe

IUCN:

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

LRN:

Lisbon Regions Network

nrg4SD:

Network of Regional Governments for Sustainable Development

OECD:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PURPLE:

Peri Urban Regions Platform Europe

REGLEG:

Conference of European Regions with Legislative Powers

RES:

Network of European Regions on Education for Sustainability

SER:

Sustainable European Regions

UN:

United Nations

UNCSD:

United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development

UNFCCC:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

WCED:

World Commission on Environment and Development

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Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the Flemish Policy Research Centre for Sustainable Development (www.steunpuntDO.be). The authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on an earlier version of this article.

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  1. Institute for International and European Policy, KULeuven, Parkstraat 45 box 3602, 3000, Leuven, Belgium

    Sander Happaerts, Karoline Van den Brande & Hans Bruyninckx

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  1. Sander Happaerts
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  2. Karoline Van den Brande
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  3. Hans Bruyninckx
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Correspondence to Sander Happaerts.

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Table 4 Conducted interviews
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Happaerts, S., Van den Brande, K. & Bruyninckx, H. Subnational governments in transnational networks for sustainable development. Int Environ Agreements 11, 321–339 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-010-9128-4

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