Abstract
Sterck and colleagues (Behaviour 134:749–774, 1997) focused attention on the evolutionary ecology of female social relationships within and between groups and proposed a model that distinguishes 4 categories of female relationships, which correspond to particular types of intra- and intergroup competition. They emphasized literature on haplorhines in their model because of numerous, detailed studies conducted on a range of species in the wild; in contrast, strepsirrhines such as the lemuroids are poorly represented. We evaluate more closely their classification of lemuroids as Dispersal-Egalitarian using a greater number of species of Lemur, Eulemur, Varecia, Hapalemur, Indri, and Propithecus. For the focal species we found that female philopatry occurs rarely, agonistic rates are relatively low, female dominance hierarchies are not stable and do not exist year-round, and intra- and intergroup female-female competition is infrequent. Therefore, our results support the suggestion that a majority of lemuroid taxa we surveyed correspond to the Dispersal-Egalitarian category with 2 probable exceptions: Lemur catta and Propithecus edwardsi. Because female Lemur catta are philopatric, have year-round dominance hierarchies with female matrilines, exhibit the highest rates of agonism in studied lemuroids, and have frequent intra- and intergroup female-female competition, it would seem that they more closely correspond to the category Resident-Nepotistic. However, maternal Lemur catta rarely support their offspring in agonistic contests and matrilineal rank is not inherited, which leads us to state that the species does not fit into any existing category that explains the nature of female social relationships. The relationships of female Propithecus edwardsi are also a challenge to categorize under the current model because some of their characteristics —typical female dispersal and low agonistic rates— fall into the Dispersal-Egalitarian category, yet other behaviors —intense targeted aggression and stable and year-round female dominance hierarchies— do not.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behavior: Sampling methods. Behaviour, 49, 227–265. doi:10.1163/156853974X00534.
Ayres, J. M. (1989). Comparative feeding ecology of the uakari and bearded saki, Cacajao and Chiropotes. Journal of Human Evolution, 18, 697–716. doi:10.1016/0047-2484(89)90101-2.
Balko, E.A. (1998). The Behavioral Plasticity of Varecia variegata in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. Ph.D. dissertation, SUNY-College of Environmental Science and Foresty, Syracuse, NY.
Barton, R. A., & Whiten, A. (1993). Feeding competition among female olive baboons, Papio anubis. Animal Behaviour, 46, 777–789. doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1255.
Bauer, R. N., Gould, L., & Sauther, M. L. (2005). Correlates of dominance rank in female ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 40, 70–71.
Bearder, S. K. (1999). Physical and social diversity among nocturnal primates: A new view based on long-term research. Primates, 40, 267–282. doi:10.1007/BF02557715.
Budnitz, N., & Dainis, K. (1975). Lemur catta: Ecology and behavior. In I. Tattersall, & R. W. Sussman (Eds.), Lemur biology (pp. 219–235). New York: Plenum Press.
Caporael, L., Sloan Wilson, D., Hemelrijk, C., & Sheldon, K. M. (2005). Small groups from an evolutionary perspective. In M. S. Poole, & A. B. Hollingshead (Eds.), Theories of small groups: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 369–398). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Chapais, B. (2004). How kinship generates dominance structures: A comparative perspective. In B. Thierry, M. Singh, & W. Kaumanns (Eds.), Macaque societies: A model for the study of social organization (pp. 186–208). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Chapman, C. A., & Chapman, L. J. (2000). Determinants of group size in primates: The importance of travel costs. In S. Boinski, & P. A. Garber (Eds.), On the move: How and why animals travel in groups (pp. 470–490). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Chapman, C. A., Wrangham, R. W., & Chapman, L. J. (1995). Ecological constraints on group size: An analysis of spider monkey and chimpanzee subgroups. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 36, 59–70. doi:10.1007/BF00175729.
Colquhoun, I. C. (1997). A predictive sociological study of the black Lemur (Eulemur macaco macaco) in Northeastern Madagascar. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.
Cooper, M. A., Aureli, F., & Singh, M. (2004). Between-group encounters among bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 56, 217–227. doi:10.1007/s00265-004-0779-4.
Cords, M. (2000). Agonistic and affiliative relationships in a blue monkey group. In P. F. Whitehead, & C. J. Jolly (Eds.), Old world monkeys (pp. 453–479). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cords, M. (2002). When are there influxes in blue monkey groups? In M. E. Glenn, & M. Cords (Eds.), The Guenons: Diversity and adaptation in African monkeys (pp. 189–201). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.
Cords, M., Mitchell, B. J., Tsingalia, H. M., & Rowell, T. E. (1986). Promiscuous mating among blue monkeys in the Kakamega Forest, Kenya. Ethology, 72, 214–226.
Curtis, D. J. (2004). Diet and nutrition in wild mongoose lemurs (Eulemur mongoz) and their implications for the evolution of female dominance and small group size in lemurs. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 124, 234–247. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10268.
Curtis, D. J., & Zaramody, A. (1999). Social structure and seasonal variation in the behaviour of Eulemur mongoz. Folia Primatologica, 70, 79–96. doi:10.1159/000021679.
Di Fiore, A., & Rendall, D. (1994). Evolution of social organization: A reappraisal for primates by using phylogenetic methods. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 9941–9945. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.21.9941.
Emmons, L. H., & Feer, E. (1990). Monkeys (Primates). In Neotropical rainforest mammals: A field guide pp. 134–153. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Erhart, E. M., & Overdorff, D. J. (1999). Female coordination of group travel in wild Propithecus and Eulemur. International Journal of Primatology, 20, 927–940. doi:10.1023/A:1020830703012.
Fashing, P. J. (2001). Male and female strategies during intergroup encounters in guerezas (Colobus guereza): Evidence for resource defense mediated through males and a comparison with other primates. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 50, 219–230. doi:10.1007/s002650100358.
Fedigan, L. M. (1992). Primate paradigms: Sex roles and social bonds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fietz, J. (1999). Monogamy as a rule rather than exception in nocturnal lemurs: The case of the fat-tailed dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus medius. Ethology, 105, 259–272. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00380.x.
Fleagle, J. G., & Reed, K. E. (1996). Comparing primate communities: A multivariate approach. Journal of Human Evolution, 30, 489–510. doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0039.
Freed, B. Z. (1996). Co-occurrence among crowned Lemurs (Lemur coronatus) and Sanford’s Lemur (Lemur fulvus sanfordi) of Madagascar. Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.
Furuichi, T. (1983). Interindividual distance and influence of dominance on feeding in a natural Japanese macaque troop. Primates, 24, 445–455. doi:10.1007/BF02381678.
Ganzhorn, J. U. (1995). Cyclones over Madagascar: Fate or fortune? Ambio, 24, 124–125.
Ganzhorn, J. U., Wright, P. C., & Ratsimbazafy, H. J. (1999). Primate communities: Madagascar. In J. G. Fleagle, C. H. Janson, & K. Reed (Eds.), Primate communities (pp. 75–89). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Gaulin, S. J., & Sailer, L. D. (1985). Are females the ecological sex? American Anthropologist, 87, 111–119. doi:10.1525/aa.1985.87.1.02a00100.
Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behavior. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Gould, L. (1992). Alloparental care in free-ranging Lemur catta at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar. Folia Primatologica, 58, 72–83.
Gould, L., & Overdorff, D. J. (2002). Adult male scent-marking in Lemur catta and Eulemur fulvus rufus. International Journal of Primatology, 23, 575–586. doi:10.1023/A:1014921701106.
Gould, L., Sussman, R. W., & Sauther, M. L. (1999). Natural disasters and primate populations: The effects of a 2-year drought on a naturally occurring population of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) in southwestern Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 20, 69–84. doi:10.1023/A:1020584200807.
Gould, L., Sussman, R. W., & Sauther, M. L. (2003). Demographic and life-history patterns in a population of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) at Beza Mahafaly Reserve, Madagascar: A 15-year perspective. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 120, 182–194. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10151.
Grassi, C. (2001). The Behavioral Ecology of Hapalemur griseus griseus: The Influences of Microhabitat and Population Density on this Small-Bodied Prosimian Folivore. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas, Austin, TX.
Gursky, S. (2000). Sociality in the spectral tarsier, Tarsius spectrum. American Journal of Primatology, 51, 89–101. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(200005)51:1<89::AID-AJP7>3.0.CO;2-7.
Hausfater, G. (1975). Dominance and reproduction in baboons (Papio cynocephalus): A quantitative analysis. In Contributions to primatology, Vol. 7 pp. 1–150. New York: Karger Press.
Hemelrijk, C. K. (2002). Understanding social behavior with the help of complexity science. Ethology, 108, 655–671. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0310.2002.00812.x.
Hemingway, C. A. (1995). Feeding and reproductive strategies of the Milne-Edwards’ Sifaka, Propithecus diadema edwardsi. Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.
Hemingway, C. A. (1996). Morphology and phenology of seeds and whole fruit eaten by Milne-Edward’s sifaka Propithecus diadema edwardsi in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 17, 637–659. doi:10.1007/BF02735259.
Hood, L. C., & Jolly, A. (1995). Troop fission in female Lemur catta at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 16, 997–1015. doi:10.1007/BF02696113.
Isbell, L. A. (1991). Contest and scramble competition: Patterns of female aggression and ranging behavior among primates. Behavioral Ecology, 2, 143–155. doi:10.1093/beheco/2.2.143.
Isbell, L. A. (2004). Is there no place like home? Ecological bases of female dispersal and philopatry and their consequences for the formation of kin groups. In C. Chapais, & C. Berman (Eds.), Kinship and behavior in primates (pp. 71–108). New York: Oxford University Press.
Isbell, L. A., & Pruetz, J. D. (1998). Differences between vervets (Cercopithecus aethiops) and patas (Erythrocebus patas) in agonistic interactions between adult females. International Journal of Primatology, 19, 837–855. doi:10.1023/A:1020393329574.
Isbell, L. A., & Young, T. P. (2002). Ecological models of female social relationships in primates: Similarities, disparities, and some directions for future clarity. Behaviour, 139, 177–202. doi:10.1163/156853902760102645.
Janson, C. H. (1985). Aggressive competition and individual food consumption in wild brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 18, 125–138. doi:10.1007/BF00299041.
Janson, C. H. (2000). Primate socio-ecology: The end of a golden era. Evolutionary Anthropology, 9, 73–86. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(2000)9:2<73::AID-EVAN2>3.0.CO;2-X.
Janson, C. H., & van Schaik, C. P. (1988). Recognizing the many faces of primate food competition: Methods. Behaviour, 105, 165–186. doi:10.1163/156853988X00502.
Johnson, S. E. (2002). Ecology and Speciation In Brown Lemurs: White-Collared Lemurs (Eulemur albocollaris) and Hybrids (Eulemur albocollaris × Eulemur fulvus rufus) in Southeastern Madagascar. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas, Austin, TX.
Jolly, A. (1966). Lemur behavior: A Madagascar field study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jolly, A. (1998). Pair-bonding, female aggression, and the evolution of lemur societies. Folia Primatologica, 69, 1–13. doi:10.1159/000052693.
Jolly, A., Dobson, A., Rasamimanana, H. M., Walker, J., O’Connor, S., Solberg, M., et al. (2002). Demography of Lemur catta at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar: Effects of troop size, habitat and rainfall. International Journal of Primatology, 23, 327–353. doi:10.1023/A:1013835612314.
Jolly, A., Rasamimanana, H. R., Kinnaird, M. F., O’Brien, T. G., Crowley, H. M., Harcourt, C. S., et al. (1993). Territoriality in Lemur catta groups during the birth season at Berenty, Madagascar. In P. M. Kappeler, & J. U. Ganzhorn (Eds.), Lemur social systems and their ecological basis (pp. 85–109). New York: Plenum Press.
Jones, C. B. (1980). The functions of status in the mantled howler monkey, Alouatta palliata Gray: Interspecific competition for group membership in a folivorous neotropical primate. Primates, 21, 389–405. doi:10.1007/BF02390468.
Jones, K. C. (1983). Inter-troop transfer of Lemur catta at Berenty, Madagascar. Folia Primatologica, 40, 145–160.
Kappeler, P. M. (1998). To whom it may concern: The transmission and function of chemical signals in Lemur catta. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 42, 411–421. doi:10.1007/s002650050455.
Kappeler, P. M. (1999). Lemur social structure and convergence in primate socioecology. In P. C. Lee (Ed.), Comparative primate socioecology (pp. 273–299). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kappeler, P. M. (2000). Causes and consequences of unusual sex ratios in lemurs. In P. M. Kappeler (Ed.), Primate males: Causes and consequences of variation in group composition (pp. 55–63). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kappeler, P. M., & Heymann, E. W. (1996). Nonconvergence in the evolution of primate life history and socio-ecology. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London, 59, 297–326.
Kappeler, P. M., & van Schaik, C. P. (2002). Evolution of primate social systems. International Journal of Primatology, 23, 707–740. doi:10.1023/A:1015520830318.
King, S. J., Arrigo-Nelson, S. J., Pochron, S. T., Semprebon, G. M., Godfrey, L. R., Wright, P. C., et al. (2005). Dental senescence in a long-lived primate links infant survival to rainfall. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 16579–16583. doi:10.1073/pnas.0508377102.
Kinzey, W. G., & Cunningham, E. P. (1994). Variability in platyrrhine social organization. American Journal of Primatology, 34, 185–198. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350340209.
Koenig, A. (2000). Competitive regimes in forest-dwelling Hanuman langur females (Semnopithecus entellus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 48, 93–109. doi:10.1007/s002650000198.
Koenig, A. (2002). Competition for resources and its behavioral consequences among female primates. International Journal of Primatology, 23, 759–783. doi:10.1023/A:1015524931226.
Koenig, A., & Borries, C. (2006). The predictive power of socioecological models: A reconsideration of resource characteristics, agonism, and dominance hierarchies. In G. Hohmann, M. M. Robbins, & C. Boesch (Eds.), Feeding ecology in apes and other primates: Ecological, physical and behavioral aspects (pp. 263–284). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Koyoma, N., Nakamichi, M., Ichino, S., & Takahata, Y. (2002). Population and social dynamics changes in ring-tailed lemur troops at Berenty, Madagascar between 1989–1999. Primates, 43, 291–314. doi:10.1007/BF02629604.
Kraus, C., Heistermann, M., & Kappeler, P. M. (1999). Physiological suppression of sexual function of subordinate males: A subtle form of intrasexual competition among male sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi)? Physiology & Behavior, 66, 855–861. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(99)00024-4.
Lewis, R. J. (2005). Sex differences in scent-marking in sifaka: Mating conflict or male services? American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 128, 389–398. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20206.
Mason, W. A., & Mendoza, S. P. (1993). Primate social conflict: An overview of sources, forms, and consequences. In W. A. Mason, & S. P. Mendoza (Eds.), Primate social conflict (pp. 1–12). Albany: State University of New York.
Mertl-Millhollen, A. S., Gustafson, H. L., Budnitz, N., Dainis, K., & Jolly, A. (1979). Population and territory stability of the Lemur catta at Berenty, Madagascar. Folia Primatologica, 31, 106–122.
Meyers, D. M. (1993). The Effects of Resource Seasonality on Behavior and Reproduction in the Golden-crowned Sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli, Simons, 1988) in Three Malagasy Forests. Ph.D. Dissertation, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.
Miller, L. E. (2002). Eat or be eaten: Predator sensitive foraging among primates. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mitchell, C. L. (1990). The Ecological Basis for Female Social Dominance: A Behavioral Study of the Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri sciureus). Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey.
Moore, J. (1984). Female transfer in primates. International Journal of Primatology, 5, 537–590. doi:10.1007/BF02692285.
Morland, H. S. (1991). Preliminary report on the social organization of ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) in a northeast Madagascar rainforest. Folia Primatologica, 56, 157–161. doi:10.1159/000133075.
Morland, H. S. (1993). Reproductive activity of ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) in a Madagascar rainforest. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 97, 71–82. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330910105.
Müller, A. E. (1999). Social organization of the fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius) in northwestern Madagascar. In B. Rakotosamimanana, H. Rasiminmanana, & J. U. Ganzhorn (Eds.), New directions in Lemur studies (pp. 139–157). New York: Plenum Press.
Müller, M. N. (2002). Agonistic relations among Kanyawara chimpanzees. In C. Boesch, G. Hohmann, & L. F. Marchant (Eds.), Behavioural diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos (pp. 112–124). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nakamichi, M., & Koyama, N. (1997). Social relationships among ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) in two free-ranging troops at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 18, 73–93. doi:10.1023/A:1026393223883.
Newton, P., & Dunbar, R. (1994). Colobine monkey societies. In A. Davies, & J. Oates (Eds.), Colobine monkeys: Their ecology, behaviour and evolution (pp. 311–346). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Nishimura, A., de Fonseca, G. A. B., Mittermeier, R. A., Young, A. L., Strier, K. B., & Valle, C. M. C. (1988). The muriqui, genus Brachyteles. In R. A. Mittermeier, A. B. Rylands, A. F. Coimbra-Filho, & G. A. B. de Fonseca (Eds.), Ecology and behavior of neotropical primates, Vol. 2 (pp. 577–610). Washington, DC: World Wildlife Fund.
Nunes, A. (1998). Diet and feeding ecology of Ateles belzebuth belzebuth at Maraca Ecology Station, Roraima, Brazil. Folia Primatologica, 69, 61–76. doi:10.1159/000021573.
Nunn, C., & Altizer, S. (2006). Infectious diseases in primates: Behavior, ecology and evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nunn, C. L., & Pereira, M. E. (2000). Group histories and offspring sex ratios in ringtailed lemur (Lemur catta). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 48, 18–28. doi:10.1007/s002650000206.
Nunn, C. L., & van Schaik, C. (2002). A comparative approach to reconstructing the socioecology of extinct primates. In J. M. Plavcan, R. F. Kay, W. L. Jungers, & C. P. van Schaik (Eds.), Reconstructing behavior in the primate fossil record (pp. 159–215). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Ossi, K., & Kamilar, J. M. (2006). Environmental and phylogenetic correlates of Eulemur behavior and ecology (Primates: Lemuridae). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 61, 53–64. doi:10.1007/s00265-006-0236-7.
Overdorff, D. J. (1993a). Ecological and reproductive correlates with ranging patterns in two prosimian primates in Madagascar. In P. M. Kappeler, & J. U. Ganzhorn (Eds.), Lemur social systems and their ecological basis (pp. 167–192). New York: Plenum Press.
Overdorff, D. J. (1993b). Similarities, differences, and seasonal patterns in the diets of Eulemur rubriventer and Eulemur fulvus rufus in the Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 14, 721–753. doi:10.1007/BF02192188.
Overdorff, D. J. (1996). Ecological correlates to social structure in two prosimian primates in Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 100, 487–506. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199608)100:4<487::AID-AJPA4>3.0.CO;2-O.
Overdorff, D. J. (1998). Are Eulemur species pairbonded? Social organization and mating strategies of Eulemur fulvus rufus in Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 105, 153–166. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199802)105:2<153::AID-AJPA4>3.0.CO;2-W.
Overdorff, D. J., & Erhart, E. M. (2001). Social and ecological influences on female dominance in day-active prosimian primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 32, 116.
Overdorff, D. J., Erhart, E. M., & Mutschler, T. (2003). The influence of patch entry order on feeding priority in three prosimian species in southeastern Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 36, 163.
Overdorff, D. J., Erhart, E. M., & Mutschler, T. (2005). Does female dominance facilitate feeding priority in black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) in southeastern Madagascar? American Journal of Primatology, 66, 7–22. doi:10.1002/ajp.20125.
Overdorff, D. J., Merenlender, A. M., Talata, P., Telo, A., & Forward, Z. (1999). Life history of Eulemur fulvus rufus from 1988–1998 in southeastern Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 108, 295–310. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199903)108:3<295::AID-AJPA5>3.0.CO;2-Q.
Overdorff, D. J., & Parga, J. (2007). The new era of primate socioecology: Ecology and intersexual conflict. In C. J. Campbell, A. Fuentes, K. C. MacKinnon, M. Panger, & S. K. Bearder (Eds.), Primates in perspective (pp. 466–482). New York: Oxford University Press.
Parga, J. A. (2006). Male mate choice in Lemur catta. International Journal of Primatology, 27, 107–131. doi:10.1007/s10764-005-9006-z.
Pereira, M. E. (1991). Asynchrony within estrous synchrony among ringtailed lemurs. Physiology & Behavior, 49, 47–52. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(91)90228-G.
Pereira, M. E. (1995). Development and social dominance among group-living lemurs. American Journal of Primatology, 37, 143–175. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350370207.
Pereira, M. E., & Kappeler, P. M. (1997). Divergent systems of agonistic behaviour in lemurid primates. Behaviour, 134, 225–274. doi:10.1163/156853997X00467.
Pereira, M. E., Kaufman, R., Kappeler, P. M., & Overdorff, D. J. (1990). Female dominance does not characterize all of the Lemuridae. Folia Primatologica, 55, 96–103.
Pereira, M. E., & McGlynn, C. A. (1997). Special relationships instead of female dominance for redfronted lemurs, Eulemur fulvus rufus. American Journal of Primatology, 43, 239–258. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(1997)43:3<239::AID-AJP4>3.0.CO;2-Y.
Perry, S. (1996). Female-female social relationships in wild white-faced capuchin monkeys, Cebus capucinus. American Journal of Primatology, 40, 167–182. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(1996)40:2<167::AID-AJP4>3.0.CO;2-W.
Pochron, S. T., Fitzgerald, J., Gilbert, C. C., Lawrence, D., Grgas, M., Rakotonirina, G., et al. (2003). Patterns of female dominance in Propithecus diadema edwardsi of Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. American Journal of Primatology, 61, 173–185. doi:10.1002/ajp.10119.
Pochron, S. T., Morelli, T. L., Terranova, P., Scirbons, J., & Wright, P. C. (2005). Sex differences in scent marking in Propithecus edwardsi of Ranomafana National Part, Madagascar. American Journal of Primatology, 66, 97–110. doi:10.1002/ajp.20130.
Pochron, S. T., Tucker, W. T., & Wright, P. C. (2004). Demography, life history, and social structure in Propithecus diadema edwardsi from 1986–2000 in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 125, 61–72. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10266.
Pochron, S. T., & Wright, P. C. (2003). Variability in adult group compositions of a prosimian primate. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 54, 285–293. doi:10.1007/s00265-003-0634-z.
Powzyk, J. A. (1997). The Socioecology of Two Sympatric Indriids, Propithecus diadema diadema and Indri indri: A Comparison of Feeding Strategies and Their Possible Repercussions on Species-Specific Behavior. Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, Durham, NC.
Pruetz, J. D. E. (2009). The socioecology of adult female Patas monkeys and Vervets in Kenya. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Range, F., & Noë, R. (2002). Familiarity and dominance relations among female sooty mangabeys in the Tai National Park. American Journal of Primatology, 56, 137–153. doi:10.1002/ajp.1070.
Rasmussen, M. A. (1999). Ecological Influences on Activity Cycle in Two Cathemeral Primates, the Mongoose Lemur (Eulemur mongoz) and the Common Brown Lemur (Eulemur fulvus fulvus). Ph.D. Dissertation, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.
Richard, A. F. (1978). Behavioral variation: Case study of a Malagasy Lemur. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press.
Richard, A. F. (1987). Malagasy prosimians: Female dominance. In B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham, & T. T. Struhsaker (Eds.), Primate societies (pp. 25–33). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Richard, A. F., Dewar, R. E., Schwartz, M., & Ratsirarson, J. (2002). Life in the slow lane? Demography and life histories of male and female sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi). Journal of Zoology, 256, 421–436.
Richard, A. F., Rakotomanga, P., & Schwartz, M. (1991). Demography of Propithecus verreauxi at Beza Mahafaly, Madagascar: Sex ratio, survival, and fertility, 1984–1988. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 84, 307–322. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330840307.
Richard, A. F., Rakotomanga, P., & Schwartz, M. (1993). Dispersal by Propithecus verreauxi at Beza Mahafaly, Madagascar: 1984–1991. American Journal of Primatology, 30, 1–20. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350300102.
Sauther, M. L. (1992). The Effect of Reproductive State, Social Rank and Group Size on Resource Use Among Free-Ranging Ringtailed Lemurs (Lemur catta). Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.
Sauther, M. L. (1993). Resource competition in wild populations of ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta): Implications for female dominance. In P. M. Kappeler, & J. U. Ganzhorn (Eds.), Lemur social systems and their ecological basis (pp. 135–152). New York: Plenum Press.
Sauther, M. L., & Sussman, R. W. (1993). A new interpretation of the social organization and mating system of the ringtailed lemur (Lemur catta). In P. M. Kappeler, & J. U. Ganzhorn (Eds.), Lemur social systems and their ecological basis (pp. 111–121). New York: Plenum Press.
Schülke, O., & Ostner, J. (2008). Male reproductive skew, paternal relatedness, and female social relationships. American Journal of Primatology, 70, 1–4. doi:10.1002/ajp.20546.
Silk, J. B. (2002a). Using the F-word in primatology. Behaviour, 139, 421–446. doi:10.1163/156853902760102735.
Silk, J. B. (2002b). Kin selection in primate groups. International Journal of Primatology, 23, 849–875. doi:10.1023/A:1015581016205.
Silk, J. B. (2006). Practicing Hamilton’s rule: Kin selection in primate groups. In P. M. Kappeler, & C. P. van Schaik (Eds.), Cooperation in primates and humans: Mechanisms and evolution (pp. 25–46). Berlin: Springer Press.
Silk, J. B. (2007). The adaptive value of sociality in mammalian groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 362, 539–559. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1994.
Snaith, T. V., & Chapman, C. A. (2007). Primate group size and interpreting socioecological models: Do folivores really play by different rules? Evolutionary Anthropology, 16, 94–106. doi:10.1002/evan.20132.
Sterck, E. H. M., & Steenbeek, R. (1997). Female dominance relationships and food competition in the sympatric Thomas langur and long-tailed macaque. Behaviour, 134, 749–774. doi:10.1163/156853997X00052.
Sterck, E. H. M., Watts, D. P., & van Schaik, C. P. (1997). The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 41, 291–309. doi:10.1007/s002650050390.
Strier, K. B. (1992). Causes and consequences of nonaggression in the woolly spider monkey, or muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides). In J. Silverberg, & J. P. Gray (Eds.), Aggression and peacefulness in humans and other primates (pp. 100–116). New York: Oxford University Press.
Struhsaker, T. T. (1997). Ecology of an African rain forest logging in Kibale and the conflict between conservation and exploitation. Gainesville: University of Press of South Florida.
Su, H. H., & Birky, W. A. (2007). Within-group female-female agonistic interactions in Taiwanese Macaques (Macaca cyclopis). American Journal of Primatology, 69, 199–211. doi:10.1002/ajp.20336.
Sussman, R. W. (1991). Demography and social organization of free-ranging Lemur catta in the Beza Mahafaly Reserve, Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 84, 43–58. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330840105.
Sussman, R. W. (1992). Male life history and intergroup mobility among ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta). International Journal of Primatology, 13, 395–413. doi:10.1007/BF02547825.
Sussman, R. W., & Garber, P. A. (2004). Rethinking sociality: Cooperation and aggression among primates. In R. W. Sussman, & A. R. Chapman (Eds.), The origins and nature of sociality (pp. 161–190). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Sussman, R. W., Garber, P. A., & Cheverud, J. M. (2005). Importance of cooperation and affiliation in the evolution of primate sociality. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 128, 84–97. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20196.
Takahata, Y., Koyama, N., Ichino, S., & Miyamoto, N. (2005). Inter- and within-troop competition of female ring-tailed lemurs: A preliminary report. African Study Monographs, 26, 1–14.
Tattersall, I. (1982). Behavior and ecology. The Primates of Madagascar pp. 264–325. New York: Columbia University Press.
Taylor, L. L. (1986). Kinship, Dominance, and Social Organization in a Semi-Free Ranging Group of Ringtailed Lemurs (Lemur catta). Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri.
Taylor, L. L., & Sussman, R. W. (1985). A preliminary study of kinship and social organization in a semi-free ranging group of Lemur catta. International Journal of Primatology, 6, 601–614. doi:10.1007/BF02692291.
Terborgh, J. (1983). Five new world primates: A study in comparative ecology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Thierry, B. (2007). Unity in diversity: Lessons from macaque societies. Evolutionary Anthropology, 16, 224–238. doi:10.1002/evan.20147.
Thierry, B. (2008). Primate socioecology, the lost dream of ecological determinism. Evolutionary Anthropology, 17, 93–96. doi:10.1002/evan.20168.
Trillmich, J., Fichtel, C., & Kappeler, P. M. (2004). Coordination of group movements in wild Verreaux’ sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi). Behaviour, 141, 1103–1120 University of Chicago Press, Chicago. doi:10.1163/1568539042664579.
van Roosmalen, M. G. M., & Klein, L. L. (1988). The spider monkey, genus Ateles. In R. A. Mittermeier, A. B. Rylands, A. F. Coimbra-Filho, & G. A. B. de Fonseca (Eds.), Ecology and behavior of neotropical primates, Vol. 2 (pp. 455–538). Washington, DC: World Wildlife Fund.
van Schaik, C. P. (1983). Why are diurnal primates living in groups? Behaviour, 87, 120–144. doi:10.1163/156853983X00147.
van Schaik, C. P. (1986). Phenological changes in a Sumatran rain forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 2, 237–247.
van Schaik, C. P. (1989). The ecology of social relationships amongst female primates. In V. Standen, & R. A. Foley (Eds.), Comparative socioecology: The behavioural ecology of humans and other mammals (pp. 195–218). Oxford: Blackwell.
van Schaik, C. P., & van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. (1983). On the ultimate causes of primate social systems. Behaviour, 85, 91–117. doi:10.1163/156853983X00057.
van Schaik, C. P., & van Noordwijk, M. A. (1986). The hidden costs of sociality: Intra-group variation in feeding strategies in Sumatran long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Behaviour, 99, 296–315. doi:10.1163/156853986X00595.
Vasey, N. (1998). The Social Behavior of Red-Ruffed Lemurs (Varecia variegata rubra) in Masoala Peninsula. Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.
Vick, L. G., & Pereira, M. E. (1989). Episodic targeting aggression and the histories of Lemur social groups. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 25, 3–12. doi:10.1007/BF00299705.
Watts, D. P. (1985). Relations between group size and composition and feeding competition in mountain gorilla groups. Animal Behaviour, 33, 72–85. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(85)80121-4.
Wilson, J. M., Stewart, P. D., Famangason, G. S., Denning, A. M., & Hutchings, M. S. (1989). Ecology and conservation of the crowned lemur, Lemur coronatus, at Ankarana, Madagascar. Folia Primatologica, 52, 1–26.
Wrangham, R. W. (1980). An ecological model of female-bonded primate groups. Behaviour, 75, 262–300. doi:10.1163/156853980X00447.
Wrangham, R. W. (1987). Evolution of social structure. In B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham, & T. T. Struhsaker (Eds.), Primate societies (pp. 282–296). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wright, P. C. (1995). Demography and life history of free-ranging Propithecus diadema edwardsi in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 16, 835–854. doi:10.1007/BF02735722.
Wright, P. C. (1997). Behavioral and ecological comparisons of neotropical and Malagasy primates. In W. G. Kinzey (Ed.), New world primates: Ecology, evolution and behavior (pp. 127–143). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Wright, P. C. (1999). Lemur traits and Madagascar ecology: Coping with an island environment. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 42, 31–72. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1999)110:29+<31::AID-AJPA3>3.0.CO;2-0.
Wright, P. C., Razafindratsita, V. R., Pochron, S. T., & Jernvall, J. (2005). The key to Madagascar frugivores. In J. L. Dew, & J. P. Boubli (Eds.),Tropical fruits and frugivores: The search for strong interactors (pp. 121–138). Dordrecht: Springer.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Government of Madagascar, particularly the National Association for the Management of Protected Areas (ANGAP) and Department of Water and Forests (DEF), for permission to conduct our research in Madagascar. We thank Benjamin Andriamihaja and the staff of the Malagasy Institute for the Conservation of the Environment Tropical (MICET) for logistical assistance in Madagascar. We also appreciate the help of Patricia Wright and the staff of the Institute for the Conservation of Tropical Environments (ICTE) at SUNY Stony Brook, and thank the staff and guides of the Ranomafana National Park for their assistance. The comments of Joyce Parga and 2 anonymous reviewers greatly improved the quality of the paper. NSF grant SBS-0001351 provided funding for portions of the project.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Erhart, E.M., Overdorff, D.J. Rates of Agonism by Diurnal Lemuroids: Implications for Female Social Relationships. Int J Primatol 29, 1227–1247 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-008-9287-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-008-9287-0