Quantifying Uncertainties in the Temperature–Time Evolution of Railway Tunnel Fires

Fire Technology volume 57, pages361–392(2021)Cite this article

Abstract

Extreme fire events in tunnels can have catastrophic consequences, including loss of lives, structural damage, and major socioeconomic impacts. The fire scenario itself is one of the primary parameters that would influence the level of damage in a tunnel. Standard hydrocarbon fire temperature–time curves exist but they are idealized and do not consider the actual fire duration and potential for fire spread within the tunnel. Furthermore, risk-based decision-making frameworks and performance-based design of tunnel linings require realistic sets of fire scenarios to quantify damage. This paper focuses on quantifying uncertainties in the temperature–time evolution of railway tunnel fires considering fire spread between train cars. In this study, 540 numerical simulations are conducted in fire dynamics simulator by varying ventilation velocity, amount of fuel, tunnel slope, ignition point, and criteria for fire spread between railcars. Temporal and spatial distribution of fire temperature in the tunnel is studied. The resulting 540 temperature–time curves at sections with the highest temperature are analyzed and statistics of the maximum fire temperature and duration, heating rate, and decay rate are provided. Fires with heat release rates larger than 40 MW are categorized as high-intensity with mean maximum temperature of 1007°C. Fires with heat release rates smaller than 30 MW are categorized as low-intensity with a mean maximum temperature of 245°C. The proposed framework can be expanded in future to establish guidelines for temperature demands in the design of concrete tunnel linings within risk-based frameworks to achieve required performance levels in railway tunnel fire events.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

US$ 39.95

Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Figure 1

Adapted from [29]

Figure 2

Adapted from [36,37,38,39]

Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8

Adapted from [59]

Figure 9

Adapted from [62]

Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16
Figure 17
Figure 18
Figure 19
Figure 20
Figure 21

References

  1. 1.

    Casey N (2019) Fire incident and fire safety operational data for major Australian road tunnels. Technical report AP-T341-19. Austroads Sydney, Australia

  2. 2.

    Schütz D (2014) Fire protection in tunnels: focus on road & train tunnels. Tech Newsl SCOR Glob P&C

  3. 3.

    Maraveas C, Vrakas AA (2014) Design of concrete tunnel linings for fire safety. Struct Eng Int 24 (3):319–329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. 4.

    Chow WK, Li JSM (1999) Safety requirement and regulations reviews on ventilation and fire for tunnels in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 14 (1):13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-7798(99)00009-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. 5.

    Fridolf K, Nilsson D, Frantzich H (2013) Fire evacuation in underground transportation systems: a review of accidents and empirical research. Fire Technol 49 (2):451–475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-011-0217-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. 6.

    Mashimo H (2002) State of the road tunnel safety technology in Japan. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 17 (2):145–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-7798(02)00017-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. 7.

    Modic J (2003) Fire simulation in road tunnels. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 18 (5):525–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-7798(03)00069-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. 8.

    Nilsson D, Johansson M, Frantzich H (2009) Evacuation experiment in a road tunnel: a study of human behaviour and technical installations. Fire Saf J 44 (4):458–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2008.09.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. 9.

    Van Coile R, Hopkin D, Lange D, Jomaas G, Bisby L (2019) The need for hierarchies of acceptance criteria for probabilistic risk assessments in fire engineering. Fire Technol 55 (4):1111–1146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-018-0746-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. 10.

    NFPA (2017) NFPA 502: standard for road, tunnels, bridges, and other limited access highways

  11. 11.

    Maevski I (2011) Design fires in road tunnels, a synthesis of highway practice. Transportation Research Board NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program Synthesis 415

  12. 12.

    Bamonte P, Felicetti R, Gambarova PG, Nafarieh A (2011) On the fire scenario in road tunnels: a comparison between zone and field models. Appl Mech Mater 82:764–769. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.82.764

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. 13.

    EFNARC (2006) Specification and guidelines for testing of passive fire protection for concrete tunnels linings. EFNARC

  14. 14.

    Souza R, Rosignuolo F, Andreini M, La Mendola S, Knaust C (2017) Probabilistic thermo-mechanical analysis of a concrete tunnel lining subject to fire. In: IFireSS 2017—2nd international fire safety symposium, Naples, Italy, pp 997–1004

  15. 15.

    Van Coile R, Caspeele R, Strauss A, Bergmeister K, Taerwe L (2014) Applied methodology for calculating the structural safety of tunnel linings exposed to fire. In: 10th CCC congress

  16. 16.

    Carvel RO, Beard AN, Jowitt PW (2001) The influence of longitudinal ventilation systems on fires in tunnels. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 16 (1):3–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-7798(01)00025-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. 17.

    Meng Q, Qu X (2011) A probabilistic quantitative risk assessment model for fire in road tunnels with parameter uncertainty. Int J Reliab Saf 5:285–298. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijrs.2011.041181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. 18.

    Cheong MK, Spearpoint M, Fleischmann C (2008) Design fires for vehicles in road tunnels

  19. 19.

    Li YZ, Ingason H (2010) Maximum ceiling temperature in a tunnel fire. SP report. SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Borås

    Google Scholar 

  20. 20.

    Li YZ, Ingason H (2012) The maximum ceiling gas temperature in a large tunnel fire. Fire Saf J 48:38–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. 21.

    Li YZ, Lei B, Ingason H (2011) The maximum temperature of buoyancy-driven smoke flow beneath the ceiling in tunnel fires. Fire Saf J 46 (4):204–210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. 22.

    Ingason H, Li YZ, Lönnermark A (2014) Tunnel fire dynamics. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2199-7

    Google Scholar 

  23. 23.

    Guo Q, Root K, Carlton A, Quiel SE, Naito CJ (2019) Framework for rapid prediction of fire-induced heat flux on concrete tunnel liners with curved ceilings. Fire Saf J 109 (Oct.):16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2019.102866

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. 24.

    McGrattan K, Hostikka S, McDermott R, Floyd J, Weinschenk C, Overholt K (2013) Fire dynamics simulator user’s guide. NIST Special Publication 1019 (6)

  25. 25.

    Atkinson GT, Wu Y (1996) Smoke control in sloping tunnels. Fire Saf J 27 (4):335–341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. 26.

    Carvel RO, Beard AN, Jowitt PW, Drysdale DD (2004) The influence of tunnel geometry and ventilation on the heat release rate of a fire. Fire Technol 40 (1):5–26. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:fire.0000003313.97677.c5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. 27.

    Chow W, Wong K, Chung W (2010) Longitudinal ventilation for smoke control in a tilted tunnel by scale modeling. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 25 (2):122–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. 28.

    Lee SR, Ryou HS (2005) An experimental study of the effect of the aspect ratio on the critical velocity in longitudinal ventilation tunnel fires. J Fire Sci 23 (2):119–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. 29.

    McGrattan K, Hamins A (2006) Numerical simulation of the Howard Street Tunnel fire. Fire Technol 42 (4):273–281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. 30.

    McGrattan K, Hamins A (2003) Numerical simulation of the Howard Street Tunnel fire, Baltimore, Maryland, July 2001. Spent Fuel Project Office, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, Rockville

    Google Scholar 

  31. 31.

    Amtrak tunnels. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Amtrak_tunnels. Accessed 20 Jan 2019

  32. 32.

    CSX Transportation tunnels. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CSX_Transportation_tunnels. Accessed 20 Jan 2019

  33. 33.

    Carvel RO, Beard AN, Jowitt PW (2005) Fire spread between vehicles in tunnels: effects of tunnel size, longitudinal ventilation and vehicle spacing. Fire Technol 41 (4):271–304

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. 34.

    Carvel RO (2004) Fire size in tunnels. Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton

    Google Scholar 

  35. 35.

    Lönnermark A, Ingason H (2004) Recent achievements regarding heat release and temperatures during fires in tunnels. In: Safety in infrastructure-Svédületes!, Budapest 20th–21st October 2004

  36. 36.

    Lattimer BY, McKinnon M (2018) A review of fire growth and fully developed fires in railcars. Fire Mater 42 (6):603–619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. 37.

    Lönnermark A, Claesson A, Lindström J, Li YZ, Kumm M, Ingason H (2012) Full-scale fire tests with a commuter train in a tunnel. SP report. SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Borås

    Google Scholar 

  38. 38.

    Stahlanwendung S (1995) Fires in transport tunnels: report on fullscale tests. EUREKA Project EU 499 FIRETUN 549

  39. 39.

    Li Y, Ingason H (2015) A new methodology of design fires for train carriages based on exponential curve method. Fire Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-015-0464-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. 40.

    Fire and smoke control in road tunnels (1999). PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels, Paris, France

  41. 41.

    Road tunnels: operational strategies for emergency ventilation (2011). PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels, Paris, France

  42. 42.

    Design fire characteristics for road tunnels (2011). PIARC Technical Committee 3.3 Road Tunnel Operation

  43. 43.

    Li YZ, Lei B, Ingason H (2010) Study of critical velocity and backlayering length in longitudinally ventilated tunnel fires. Fire Saf J 45 (6–8):361–370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. 44.

    Roh JS, Ryou HS, Kim DH, Jung WS, Jang YJ (2007) Critical velocity and burning rate in pool fire during longitudinal ventilation. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 22 (3):262–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. 45.

    Tanaka F, Takezawa K, Hashimoto Y, Moinuddin KA (2018) Critical velocity and backlayering distance in tunnel fires with longitudinal ventilation taking thermal properties of wall materials into consideration. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 75:36–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. 46.

    Weng M, Lu X, Liu F, Shi X, Yu L (2015) Prediction of backlayering length and critical velocity in metro tunnel fires. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 47:64–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. 47.

    Wu Y, Bakar MA (2000) Control of smoke flow in tunnel fires using longitudinal ventilation systems—a study of the critical velocity. Fire Saf J 35 (4):363–390

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. 48.

    Lee Y, Tsai K (2012) Effect of vehicular blockage on critical ventilation velocity and tunnel fire behavior in longitudinally ventilated tunnels. Fire Saf J 53:35–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. 49.

    Oka Y, Atkinson GT (1995) Control of smoke flow in tunnel fires. Fire Saf J 25 (4):305–322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. 50.

    Branch RAI (2010) Technical investigation report concerning the fire on Eurotunnel freight shuttle 7412 on 11 September 2008. Rail Accident Investigation Branch, Derby

    Google Scholar 

  51. 51.

    Carvel R (2010) Fire dynamics during the channel tunnel fires. In: Lonnermark A, Ingason H (eds) Proceedings of the 4th international symposium on tunnel safety & security, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, pp 463–470

  52. 52.

    Ingason H, Li YZ, Lönnermark A (2015) Runehamar tunnel fire tests. Fire Saf J 71:134–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. 53.

    Lemaire T (2004) Runehamar tunnel fire tests: radiation, fire spread and back layering. In: International symposium on catastrophic tunnel fires (CTF), SP report, vol 2004:05, Borås, Sweden

  54. 54.

    Lönnermark A, Ingason H (2006) Fire spread and flame length in large-scale tunnel fires. Fire Technol 42 (4):283–302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. 55.

    Andreini A, Da Soghe R, Facchini B, Giusti A (2011) Fire scenarios modelling for the safe design of a passenger rail carriage. In: 9th world congress of railway research, Lille, France

  56. 56.

    Superliner (railcar). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superliner_(railcar). Accessed Dec 2018

  57. 57.

    Forney GP (2017) Smokeview (version 5)-a tool for visualizing fire dynamics simulation data, volume I: user’s guide

  58. 58.

    Li YZ, Ingason H, Lönnermark A (2012) Numerical simulation of Runehamar tunnel fire tests. In: 6th international conference tunnel safety and ventilation, Graz, Austria, pp 203–210

  59. 59.

    MassDOT and FHWA (1995) Memorial tunnel fire ventilation test program: test report. Central Artery/Tunnel Project. Massachusetts Highway Department and Federal Highway Administration

  60. 60.

    Giblin KA (1997) The Memorial Tunnel fire ventilation test program. ASHRAE J 39 (2):26

    Google Scholar 

  61. 61.

    Luchian SF (1997) Memorial Tunnel fire test program. TR News, vol 190, May–June

  62. 62.

    Ministry of Transportation and Public Works of the Netherlands (1999) Evaluation of Memorial Tunnel CFD simulations. Ministry of Transportation and Public Works of the Netherlands, The Hague

    Google Scholar 

  63. 63.

    Risher J, Rhodes S (1995) Toxicological profile for fuel oils. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  64. 64.

    Kim E, Woycheese JP, Dembsey NA (2008) Fire dynamics simulator (version 4.0) simulation for tunnel fire scenarios with forced, transient, longitudinal ventilation flows. Fire Technol 44 (2):137–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. 65.

    Hurley MJ, Gottuk DT, Hall Jr JR, Harada K, Kuligowski ED, Puchovsky M, Watts Jr JM, Wieczorek CJ (2015) SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This work was supported by CAIT Region 2 UTC Consortium.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA

    Nan Hua, Anthony Tessari & Negar Elhami-Khorasani

Authors
  1. Nan Hua
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anthony Tessari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Negar Elhami-Khorasani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nan Hua.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hua, N., Tessari, A. & Elhami-Khorasani, N. Quantifying Uncertainties in the Temperature–Time Evolution of Railway Tunnel Fires. Fire Technol 57, 361–392 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-020-01007-8

Download citation

Keywords

  • Railway tunnel fire
  • Temperature–time evolution
  • Fire spread
  • Uncertainties
  • Performance-based design