Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana
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Abstract
Ghana has implemented regulation on the registration, distribution and usage of pesticides in order to evaluate their environmental and human health effects. However, environmental monitoring and certified laboratories for pesticide analysis are lacking. Pesticide misuse, misapplication, contamination of the environment and human exposure still continue, and little is known to what extent pesticide registration, distribution and use is properly implemented in Ghana. This study aimed at investigating how the pesticide policy operates in Ghana, how state (policy; national/local) and non-state (importers, dealers’ and farmers) stakeholders function, what their challenges are, and to which extend the policy objectives are achieved. A conceptual framework based on the contextual interaction theory (CIT) was developed, and a review of Ghana’s pesticide policy implementation with two empirical field studies on state policy and non-state policy actors was conducted, supplemented with secondary data, and a number of interviews conducted with stakeholders and informants were used. Results indicate that pesticides are registered in compliance with the law. Non-state actors scored low with respect to their mandate which likely results in environmental and human health risks. Significant association existed between educational level attained and knowledge (χ2 = 3.614; P ≤ 0.05). Work experience or duration of farming also significantly influenced the knowledge of respondents (P < 0.001), as well as attitude (χ2 = 15.328; P < 0.05). Work experience/duration of farming also significantly influenced attitude at 95% confidence level (P < 0.001), and duration of farming was significantly associated with farm management practices at 5% level of significance (P ≤ 0.05), while state actors are not motivated and resourced. It is recommended to perform preliminary risk assessment to the aquatic environment, to derive threshold levels which are protective of communities, to screen farmers for pesticide exposure and poisoning, to develop well-targeted training programmes for pesticide retailers and farmers on pesticide use, personal protective device use, as well as pesticide management and law. Additionally, pesticide policy implementers have to be motivated and resourced to carry out their mandate, being to execute the pesticide legislation.
Keywords
Pesticides Registration Policy Implementation Actors Ghana1 Introduction
Pesticides use in agriculture in Ghana has resulted in reduced crop loss (Clarke et al. 1997). There has been a continuous increase in the importation and use of pesticides (Ministry of Food and Agriculture 2011). This include both the number of chemicals and quantities registered as well as recorded by the competent authorities and regulators such as the Food and Drugs Authority (FDA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Ghana, Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA). This increase is prevalent due to the expansion of cultivation areas for food and cash crops in a bid to meet the increasing demand for food (Ministry of Food and Agriculture 2003). The increase can also be attributed to the liberalization of the economy and the government’s aim of attaining a middle income economy as enshrined in the country’s Vision 2020 agenda. Further, the regulation and the registration of pesticides opened a new economic boom with the resultant increase in the registration of pesticide products for use in Ghana. The use of pesticides, however, has not been without deleterious effects on people, such as farmers, traders and consumers, which are involved in the food supply chain. Poor knowledge of farmers on the types of pesticides, their use and associated risks, ineffective governmental enforcement of pesticides’ regulations and strong incentives among pesticide traders and users to make profits have been reported leading to an increased use of cheap, mislabelled and adulterated pesticides in Ghana (Northern Presbyterian Agricultural Services and Partners, 2012; GNA 2012). Instances of over use and misuse on crops have been reported with the accompanying negative effects on productivity, environment and human health (Gerken et al. 2001; Amoako et al. 2012; Dinham 2003). Williamson et al. (2008) described chlorpyrifos, endosulfan and lambda cyhalothrin being associated with instances of ill health among Ghanaian farmers. Ntow (2001) detected endosulfan and lindane in water and sediment of streams in areas of intensive tomato farming, while other organochlorine pesticide residues were also found in sediment. Similar results were recorded by Ntow (2005) for the Volta Lake in Ghana.
With these problems, there has been a shift to the use of relatively “safer” pesticide alternatives which gave birth to the implementation of the pesticide registration process of Ghana in 2003. The pesticide law at the time was the Pesticide Control and Management Act, Act 528 of 1996. The law has been consolidated to become Part II of the main Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Act, Act 490 of 1994. This law includes the whole pesticide life cycle, and also the registration and procurement of pesticides, their import, distribution and retail to farmers, their monitoring for quality control and waste management.
Since the implementation of the pesticide registration process, a number of interventions such as training courses on pesticide storage and handling and their proper use have been organized for importers, distributors, retailers and farmers by the state and a number of non-state organisations (NSOs). However, little is known regarding how and to what extent the registration, distribution and use of pesticides is properly implemented in Ghana. It is also not clear whether these actions by the registration authorities have yielded the necessary improvements in pesticide management and their use. This is so because the operationalization of the pesticide law lacks extensive and reliable information that could be available to experts, scholars, researchers and practitioners in this field of enquiry. The main objective of this paper is to examine how pesticides are registered, distributed and used and to assess how different state (policy implementers) and non-state (distributors and the farmers) pesticide actors can improve the governance of pesticides in order to increase their environmental sustainability as well as workers’ health in Ghana.
1.1 Pesticide law in Ghana: registration, distribution and use (regulatory framework)
Ghana has a pesticide legislation, part II of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Act (Act 490), which governs the whole pesticide life cycle. The legislation helps to assure that pesticides are used in a safe way in the country. The Ghana EPA is responsible for the registration of pesticides as well as their management. They do this to ensure that the pesticides are properly labelled, distributed, stored, transported, used and applied by following the accepted procedures and processes. The Ghana EPA further monitors pesticide use and, if needed, react against illegal use, and issues pesticides importation and use licences. The registration of pesticides is headed by a Pesticides Registrar who works with a Pesticides Technical Committee which includes a wide background of expertise and institutions (section 53 of the Act) and which advises the Ghana EPA Board whether pesticides should be registered or not.
The Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Directorate (PPRSD), of the Ministry of Agriculture, through the Pesticide and Fertilizer Regulatory Division Act 803 (2010) compliment the Ghana EPA. They supervise and train pesticide inspectors, register and inspect pesticide dealers and provide information materials and training on pesticides, among others, for retailers and farmers.
To tackle illegal trade in pesticides, the Customs Division of the Ghana Revenue Authority regulates all imports into Ghana including chemicals under Act 791 (2009). Under the auspices of the Ghana EPA, the customs division examines documents and certificates issued by the Ghana EPA. The aim is to validate the claim of the bearer regarding a particular importation. The law (Act 791) gives customs officers the jurisdiction to search for certain persons, premises and baggage and seize prohibited items, including pesticides.
Ghana, in the exercise of its duty on pesticides, recognizes international legal agreements relating to pesticides. These include the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides (i.e. the FAO Code of Conduct). Ghana is also a signatory to the Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent (ratified in 2003), which facilitates the sharing of information between countries and prevents that banned or severely restricted pesticides are exported and imported. Furthermore, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants aims to safeguard human health and the environment from effects of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and is subscribed to by the country (ratified in 2003).
1.2 Pesticides registration procedure in Ghana
Pesticide registration dossier and application scheme
The process includes: (1) the application for registration, (2) data on chemical and physical properties, toxicology, efficacy, residues and fate in the environment of the active ingredient and formulated product, (3) several specific requirements like an agency agreement between the agent and the manufacturer, a batch certificate of analysis, (4) locally generated efficacy data form, (5) samples of the pesticide, (6) a manufacturing licence in the country of origin and (7) the package label in English (EPA-Ghana 2012).
Application for the registration of a pesticide involves the submission of a product dossier with the necessary annexures to the registrar (EPA-Ghana 2012). The complete application is scientifically scrutinized by technical sub-committees on environmental and human toxicology, bio-efficacy, labelling and advertisements. An evaluation report and recommendations on the application are then submitted to the Pesticide Technical Committee (PTC).
The PTC evaluates the report and proposes a registration decision for deliberation by the Ghana EPA Board. The decisions could be full registration valid for 3 years and can be renewed. A provisional clearance permit lasts between 6 months to 1 year, in which case the applicant is supposed to submit additional information for further consideration. An experimental permit can also be issued for the purposes of research. Decision on banned products (banned for use locally or internationally) or suspension of the registration (inability of the Board to reach a decision) can also be reached (EPA-Ghana, 2012). These permits can also be renewed upon expiry. Registered pesticides are subsequently gazetted into public communication channels, as the media.
The Ghana EPA is responsible for verifying the registration and the import of pesticides by issuing a clearance permit, after the importer submitted an application which includes the data as requested by the Ghana EPA. Under the Ghana EPA Act, “a person shall not import, export, manufacture, distribute, advertise or sell a pesticide except in accordance with a licence issued under this Act” (EPA-Ghana 2012). For the storage of pesticide products, a pesticide licence is required. Pesticide licences are issued based on the presence of a satisfactory location of the storage facility upon inspection by the Ghana EPA.
Pesticide clearance permits are required for an importer to clear consignments from the port based on availability of pesticide licence and if the imported pesticide product is registered.
1.3 Theoretical framework for analysing policy implementation
A conceptual framework based on the contextual interaction theory (CIT) was developed for the study from the review of the policy implementation literature (Fimyar 2014; Sabatier 1991; Van Horn and Van Meter 1977). The theory as described by Bressers (2007) indicates that implementing a policy is a social process where the output and outcome are defined by the interactions of its actors. The framework evaluates how a policy operates in practice, how state (registration authorities) and non-state (pesticide dealers and farmers) actors are functioning and whether the policy objectives are achieved. Outputs are the tangible results of a measure or the noticeable effects shortly after or even during implementation (Bressers 2007). The Ghana pesticide registration offers a number of outputs that are supposed to be implemented by state actors and the outputs that are supposed to yield certain desired outcomes by the non-state actors. The CIT thus offers an opportunity to evaluate whether the desired outcome has been achieved or not. The CIT brings to the fore a couple of actor characteristics including information, motivation and resources. These were selected for the purpose of this study to better understand their impact on the likelihood to implement a policy. The governance approach focuses on the interaction taking place between governing actors with information, motivation and resources (Mengistie et al. 2014). The interaction shapes actors and actors shape interaction patterns. The three variables information, motivation and resources may mutually influence each other as well (Bressers 2007; Harder 2008; Karwai 2005; Logan 2010; Locke and Letham 2004).
Many research efforts have shown that the characteristics of a policy network may be a useful base for elucidating the functioning of a policy instrument and its design (e.g. de Bruijn and Hufen 1998). The concept of policy networks generally contains the assumption that there are both links and actors (Carlsson 2006). The implementation process of the policy gets its particular shape through such networks. This conceptual framework (evaluation model) is used to link the registration and policy on the one hand and use practices at farm level on the other hand.
- 1.
Policy input and objective. What is the pesticides policy and what are its objectives which are used by the administration to produce outputs? Such resources would include personnel, finance, pesticides registration documents (international chemical conventions, regulation, dossier for pesticides registration, among others) and what the policy says about state and non-state actors of pesticides regarding environment and human health safety and sustainability.
- 2.
Policy implementation process. This refers to the roles of authorities, companies, non-governmental organizations and individuals. Information on how, why and under what circumstances these actors are involved in the course of policy implementation is important. There is the need to identify who are important actors and stakeholders and what they are doing related to safe pesticides registration, distribution and use. There is the need to focus on agricultural and environmental offices from national to local level. This should involve the importers in the country, pesticides inspectors, extension workers, wholesalers, retailers (since they are important source of pesticides for farmers) and farmers associations.
- 3.
Policy output. This entails the issues and challenges listed by the target groups (farmers) who are faced with, e.g. selection and use of certain products. This is the group where the noticeable effects occurring shortly after or even during implementation can be observed.
2 Study area and methodology
This study was based on Ghana’s pesticides law and two empirical field studies on state policy and non-state policy actors were conducted. Data for this study were supplemented with secondary data and a number of interviews conducted with stakeholders and informants.
2.1 Study area and actors
Two empirical surveys were conducted. For the first survey, purposeful sampling was used to select the locations to interview non-state actors (distributors, retailers and farmers). This was done to select those distributors and retailers who had interactions with the regulatory bodies. Farmers were chosen if they applied pesticides themselves, interacted with the pesticides dealers and extension staff. Interviews and inspections were conducted with 13 pesticides importing companies made up of nine indigenous and four foreign companies selected in Accra and Kumasi. These companies had been selected based on their preparedness to respond to questionnaires of the team and to allow their outfits to be inspected. Their simple task was to indicate and show to the team whether their outfits had been inspected by the EPA during the year of the study, whether they had valid pesticides dealers licence to operate as described in section 40 (1–2) of the Act, whether they were selling registered pesticides (section 28 of Act) and whether the attendants were provided with PPE which were in line with section 44 (4–5).
Fieldwork was conducted on 30 randomly selected pesticides’ retailers in Kumasi-Kejetia, which is the main commercial market in Ghana where most of the import, distribution and retail of pesticides occur. A list of licensed pesticides importers, retailer shops and commercial applicators for the country was used to identify their locations for the interview. Since pesticides are special products under the pesticides law, having the license or not was considered vital for accessing the actors, but the status of licences was noted. The survey was conducted from May 2013 to January 2014 at seven sites comprising of six irrigation sites from five regions and one plantation area for the farmers. These were the Okyereko (OK) irrigation site (25 respondents) in the Central region, the Weija (WJ) and the Ashaiman (AS) irrigation sites (25 respondents) each in the Greater Accra Region, the Akuse (AK) irrigation site (25 respondents) and cocoa plantations in New Tafo Akim/Tontro (TN) (31 respondents), the Eastern region, the Akomadan (AD) irrigation site (14 respondents) in the Ashanti region and the Tono (TO) irrigation site (11 respondents) in the Upper East region. The study sites were chosen to reflect the increasing importance of farming in the country and where pesticides are used intensively. These regions were selected as representative of Ghana in terms of economic prosperity, agricultural advancement, crops grown, geography and climate among others (Dickson and Benneh 1977; MOFA 2011). Crops grown in OK and AS included vegetables (tomato, pepper, onion, okro, garden eggs, cabbage, cucumber, tinda, cowpea, soybean, lettuce, groundnut) and rice, while vegetables were grown in WJ, AD and TO, rice in AK and cocoa in TN.
A questionnaire was pretested in the field on some farmers. The focus was on farmers’ understanding of agricultural pesticides used, possible risks for human beings and the environment when pesticides are used. This allowed for corrections and adjustments to the questionnaire before the final survey. Other information required included the pesticides used, their purity and used dosages, time of application and poisoning symptoms. Information on the use of protective clothing by farmers while using pesticides was also obtained. The source of information for farmers on new and banned pesticides was noted. Farmers were also asked whether they have been screened for pesticide poisoning. Data were subsequently collected by completing the questionnaire during semi-structured (personal and group) interviews and discussions (in English and local dialects) with local farmers. At least one agrochemical dealer in each site was also interviewed concerning pesticides usage and safety. The registration status of the identified pesticides used by farmers in Ghana was determined from the registration authorities (Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana).
Prior informed consent from each respondent was gained and permission to carry out research at the sites was obtained from the scheme managers of the irrigation sites and from the owners of cocoa farms. A total of 156 farmers voluntarily responded to the questionnaire in the survey. We also observed farmers’ practices as they work to validate some of the questionnaire-based data because most interviews were conducted when farmers were working in the field. Further interviews were conducted with a total of 15 extension staff (local state actors) in the course of data collection with the farmers. These interviews centred on the problems they encounter in the running of their daily activities with respect to their access to information, the available resources and their motivation while working with the farmers. It involved 18 questions (10 questions on motivation, three on resource and five on information).
A second survey included a total of 17 extensive interviews with national state actors (policy implementers). They included nine pesticides registration experts from the Ghana EPA, and five persons from the PPRSD. The interview focused on the pesticides policy implementation, the registration process, pesticides inspections and pesticides quality control and available observation in terms of information, motivation and resources. Discussions were also held with the Poison Control Center (PCC) of the Ministry of Health (MoH) on pesticides poisoning related issues. Two officers of the Customs Division of the Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA) were interviewed on import and export controls, access to information, resources, and their motivation. For this, a questionnaire containing 21 questions (motivation 10, resource 5 and information 6 questions) regarding available observation in the implementation process was used. In addition, results of secondary data collected from the registration authority in Ghana were used to verify the authenticity of the findings of the pesticides law (Part II of Act 490 1994).
The response for the non-state policy actors were mostly “yes” or “no”, and the results were presented as percentages. Bivariate analysis using the Chi-square was used to determine statistically significant associations between the demographic characteristic and farmers’ knowledge, attitude, and practices; then multi-criteria statistical cluster analyses were used for responses of the national state policy actors’ (Ghana EPA and PPRSD on pesticide governance). The respondents had the task of assigning a grade of between 1 and 5 (1: insignificant, 2: quite insignificant, 3: significant, 4: very significant, 5: most significant) to a particular question. Analysis of the data accepts the general knowledge that state policy actors responded to the same questions regarding the implementation of the policy. The answers to the questions provide ordinal qualitative variables, yielding a classic multidimensional matrix consisting of objects (policy implementer) and question which has an attribute referred to as observation in the form of either a motivation, information or resource question). Responses obtained for particular question form clusters which are mutually interdependent. The clusters are formed using a hierarchical agglomeration procedure, which progressively clusters groups of elements, starting with the grouping of the most similar ones and, in the following steps, group less similar clusters.
The analysis identifies groups with similar compositions of needs to define possible solution options (remediations) based on similarities between the responses to the main question. SPSS statistical software (version 21.0) was used for all the analyses.
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Non-state policy actors of pesticides
3.1.1 Farmers’ pesticides use practices
Demographic characteristics of respondents
Variable | Frequency (N = 156) | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Age (years) | ||
18–35 | 50 | 32.1 |
36–50 | 48 | 30.8 |
> 50 | 58 | 37.2 |
Educational level | ||
No formal education | 49 | 31.4 |
Basic | 91 | 58.3 |
Secondary | 13 | 8.3 |
College | 3 | 1.9 |
Duration of work (years) | ||
< 10 | 34 | 21.8 |
10–20 | 67 | 42.9 |
21–30 | 20 | 12.8 |
> 30 | 10 | 6.4 |
Stagger planting | 25 | 16.0 |
Synthetic pesticides recorded in the study and approved by the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana to control the most important pests in agriculture including their active ingredients, purity, applied and recommended dosages
Active ingredient | Active ingredient conc. | Group | Applied dose, l/ha, kg/ha | Recommended dose on label, l/ha, kg/ha |
---|---|---|---|---|
Herbicide | ||||
*Glyphosate | 360 g/L 480 g/L | Phosphonate | 1.2–9.8 L | 0.5–2.5 L |
*Paraquat | 200 g/L | Bipiridillium | 1.5–8.33 L | 1.5–3.0 L |
*Butachlor | 500 g/L | Acetanilide | 6.67 L | 4.0 L |
*Pendimethalin | 400 g/L | Dinitroaniline | 3.0–9.8 L | 2.5–3.0 L |
Propanil | 360 g/L | Acetanilide | 2.0–3.7 L | 8.0–10 L |
*Bensulfuron methyl | 30% | Sulfonylurea | 0.42 kg | 0.003–0.10 kg |
*Bispyribac sodium | 400 g/L | Pyrimidinyl oxybenzoic acid | 0.10 L | 0.015–0.05 L |
Propanil + 2, 4-D | 360 g/L + 200 g/L | Acetanilide Phenoxy acid | 2.0–3.7 L | 4.0 L |
*Pretilachlor + Pyribenzoxim | 30% + 2% | Chloroacetamide Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate | 2.0 L | 1.0–1.5 L |
*Oxyfluorfen + Glyphosate | 300 g/L + 360 g/L | Phosphonate | 1.5–2.0 L | 0.75–0.90 L |
Insecticide | ||||
*Lambda Cyhalothrin | 25 g/L 50 g/L | Pyrethroid | 1.0–14.8 L | 0.6 L 0.4 L |
*Chlorpyrifos | 480 g/L | Organophosphate | 1.0–1.67 L | 0.6–1.0 L |
*Emamectin benzoate | 1.9% | Avermectin | 0.62–1.85 L | 0.25–0.30 L |
Imidacloprid | 200 g/L | Neonicotinoid | 0.15 L | 0.6 L |
*Lambda cyhalothrin + Acetamiprid | 16 g/L + 20 g/L | Pyrethroid Neonicotinoid | 1.5 L | 1.0 L |
Acetamiprid | 200 g/L | Neonicotinoid | 0.37 L | – |
Novaluron | 35 g/L | Insect growth regulator | 0.45 L | – |
Thiamethoxam | 240 g/L | Neonicotinoid | 0.125–0.150 L | 0.125–0.150 L |
Bifenthrin | 27 g/L | Pyrethroid | 0.50 L | |
*Cypermethrin + Dimethoate | 36 g/L + 400 g/L | Pyrethroid Carbamate | 2.5–9.8 L | 0.5 L |
Bifenthrin + Novaluron | 30 g/L 35 g/L | Pyrethroid IGR | 0.45 L | – |
Bifenthrin + Acetamiprid | 30 g/L 16 g/L | Pyrethroid Neonicotinoid | 0.055–0.075 L | – |
Nematicide | ||||
Carbofuran | 3% | Carbamate | 0.6 kg | 20–25 kg |
Fungicide | ||||
*Mancozeb | 800 g/kg | Dithiocarbamate | 5.93–9.88 kg | 0.8–2.0 kg |
*Carbendazim | 500 g/kg | Benzimidazole carbamate | 0.8–1.6 kg | 0.13–0.26 kg |
*Sulphur | 800 g/kg | 0.8–0.988 kg | 0.67 kg | |
*Maneb | 800 g/kg | Ethylene bisdithiocarbamate | 9.88 kg | 2.0–4.0 kg |
Copper hydroxide | 77% | 0.74–1.5 kg | 2.0–4.0 kg | |
Metalaxyl + Mancozeb | 8% + 64% | Phenylamide | 1.0 kg | 2.0–2.5 kg |
Metalaxyl-M + cuprous oxide | 12% + 60% | Phenylamide | 0.25–4.94 kg | 1.0 kg |
Cuprous oxide nordox | 86% | – | 0.15 kg | – |
Cupric hydroxide | 53.8% | – | 0.8 kg | – |
Copper + metalaxyl | 35% + 15% | Phenylamide | 0.75 kg | – |
Sources of pesticide imports into Ghana
Synthetic pesticides recorded in the study, which were overdosed pesticides as well as the sites where the overdosing took place
Pesticide class | Active ingredient(s) | Applied dose, l/ha, kg/ha | Recommended dose on label, l/ha, kg/ha | Site(s) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Median | Range | Median | |||
Herbicide | Glyphosate | 1.2–9.8 L | 5.5 L | 0.5–2.5 L | 3.0 L | AS |
Paraquat | 1.5–8.33 L | 4.9 L | 1.5–3.0 L | 2.25 L | AS | |
Bensulfuron methyl | 0.42 kg | – | 0.003–0.10 kg | 0.05 kg | AS, OK, AK | |
Pretilachlor + Pyribenzoxim | 2.0 L | – | 1.0–1.5 L | 1.25 L | AK | |
Oxyfluorfen + Glyphosate | 1.5–2.0 L | 1.75 L | 0.75–0.90 L | 0.83 L | WJ | |
Pendimethalin | 3.0–9.8 L | 6.4 L | 2.5–3.0 L | 4.0 L | AS, AK | |
Bispyribac sodium | 0.10 L | – | 0.015–0.05 L | 0.03 L | AK | |
Butachlor | 6.67 L | – | 4.0 L | – | OK | |
Insecticide | Lambda Cyhalothrin | 1.0–14.8 L | 7.9 L | 0.4–0.6 L | 0.5 L | AS, OK, WJ, AK |
Emamectin benzoate | 0.62–1.85 L | 1.24 L | 0.25–0.30 L | 0.28 L | AS, OK, WJ | |
Lambda Cyhalothrin + Acetamiprid | 1.5 L | – | 1.0 L | – | OK | |
Cypermethrin + Dimethoate | 2.5–9.8 L | 6.15 L | 0.5 L | – | AS, OK | |
Chlorpyrifos | 1.0–1.67 L | 1.33 L | 0.6–1.0 L | 1.1 L | AS, OK, WJ, AK | |
Fungicide | Mancozeb | 5.93–9.88 kg | 7.9 kg | 0.8–2.0 kg | 1.4 kg | AS, WJ, OK |
Carbendazim | 0.8–1.6 kg | 1.2 kg | 0.130–0.260 kg | 0.2 kg | WJ | |
Sulphur | 0.8–0.988 kg | 0.89 kg | 0.67 kg | – | AS, AK | |
Maneb | 9.88 kg | – | 2.0–4.0 kg | 2.0 kg | WJ, AS |
Questions on farmers and sprayers knowledge, attitude, practices during pesticide use and occurrence of recent spills (n = 156)
Question | Yes | Percentage |
---|---|---|
(a) Have you ever spilt pesticide mix on your body while working | ||
i. Because of improper fitted lid | 142 | 91 |
ii. During Pouring, loading | 141 | 90 |
iii. Wrong wind direction | 156 | 100 |
iv. Leaking equipment | 156 | 100 |
v. Falling in the field | 156 | 100 |
vi. Wrong movement with the sprayer | 156 | 100 |
vii. Spray above the body | 156 | 100 |
(b) How can you help a colleague during pesticide splash | ||
i. Advice washing | 156 | 100 |
ii. Go to health centre | 156 | 100 |
iii. Advice drink water | 0 | 0 |
iv. Advice drink red palm oil | 0 | 0 |
v. No problem, no idea | 0 | 0 |
(c) What protective measure did you take to protect yourself at your last spray operation | ||
i. Wore overall | 0 | 0 |
ii. Wore safety shoe | 25 | 16 |
iii. Used respirator | 4 | 3 |
iv. Used gloves | 0 | 0 |
v. Used goggles | 0 | 0 |
vi. Used apron | 0 | 0 |
vii. Used a hat | 0 | 0 |
viii. Practiced careful working | 156 | 100 |
ix. Timed the spraying, e.g. early morning | 156 | 100 |
(d) What did you do during and after spraying the pesticide | ||
i. Wash your hands after spraying? | 156 | 100 |
ii. Eat/drink/smoke during work with pesticides | 12 | 8 |
iii. Keep meals near pesticides? | 0 | 0 |
iv. Drink water near pesticide-treated fields | 0 | 0 |
v. Shower after pesticide exposure | 24 | 15 |
vi. Change clothing before and after pesticide exposure | 7 | 5 |
(e) Where do you prepare pesticide mix for application | ||
i. Chemical store | 0 | 0 |
ii. Outdoors | 0 | 0 |
iii. Close to dam/river/stream | 156 | 100 |
iv. In the house | 0 | 0 |
v. Wherever | 0 | 0 |
(f) How did the most recent accidental spill that you experienced take place? | ||
i. While mixing (Accidental) | 1 | 1 |
ii. During preparation for spraying | 0 | 0 |
iii. Inferior equipment | 128 | 82 |
iv. While storing | 0 | 0 |
v. Other (strong wind) | 27 | 17 |
(g) Have you ever been screened for pesticide poisoning before? | 0 | 0 |
The possible environmental risks have been demonstrated in other studies by Ramo et al. (2016) and Teklu et al. (2016) in Costa Rica and Ethiopia, respectively. There is, therefore, a need to perform environmental risk assessments of current pesticides use in Ghana to identify pesticides that pose the highest risks to the aquatic environment and to determine threshold levels of the pesticides that are protective of the environment.
The data indicated that accidental spills took place in the field during pesticides application as a result of inferior equipment (82%), when removing pressurized tubes and nozzles due to strong winds (together 17%), while one farmer reported of an accidental spill during mixing (Table 4). Farmers are probably the actors having the greatest risk of pesticides poisoning due to their intimate contact with pesticides. Ntow et al. (2006) found that knapsack sprayer is prone to leakage, especially when it is getting old. Matthews et al. (2003) emphasizes the need to provide better-quality, affordable and comfortable equipment.
A couple of farmers (15%) wash themselves after accidentally being exposed to pesticides, while others (5%) changed clothing before and after pesticides exposure, while the remaining farmers did not do anything (Table 4). This lack of adherence to strict safety measures under section 44 (4) of the Act could lead to different health problems.
Questions on information on pesticide usage and safety, banned pesticides and new methods of application (n = 156)
Item | Yes | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Pesticides usage and safety | ||
Extension staff | 120 | 77 |
Labels | 17 | 11 |
Consultants | 19 | 12 |
Banned pesticides | ||
Extension staff | 115 | 74 |
Consultants | 19 | 12 |
Meetings | 13 | 8 |
Farmer’s Association | 9 | 6 |
New methods of pesticide application | ||
Extension staff | 115 | 74 |
Consultants | 19 | 12 |
Meetings | 11 | 7 |
Farmers’ Association | 11 | 7 |
The survey showed that the interviewed farmers have had some form of training on pesticide application and safety. Most of the knowledge and expertise acquired was from formal advice (90%) and through training on the job. Additionally, extension staff and consultants who promote their pesticides were also involved (Table 5).
Generally, none of the farmers had recorded any pesticide spill on their body as a result of wrong wind direction, leaking equipment, falling in the field, wrong movement with the sprayer or spraying above the body. However, 90% of farmers admitted spill during pouring and loading of spray equipment, suggesting the need for special attention on the correct and appropriate means of pouring and loading spray equipment in subsequent training sections. Farmers had ample knowledge on how to help a colleague in the event of pesticide splash, and apart from safety shoes and respirators, no respondent had used protective measures, i.e. personal protective equipment (PPE), to protect them during their spray operations (Table 4). Other studies have also shown that protective actions using PPE’s are rarely taken while handling and applying pesticides (Berg 2001; Matthews et al. 2003; Perry et al. 2002). Wilson and Tisdell (2001) reports that protective clothing has not been used enough particularly in less-developed countries. A lack of money to buy them and the absence of (enforcement of) regulations on their use are posed as the most important reasons for this. However, in Ghana, this is a clear violation of section 44 (1, 2 and 4) of the pesticides Act. In the survey, farmers complain of the cost of PPEs and the fact that it is uncomfortable to use. Ntow et al. (2006) reported similar findings that the PPEs are hardly used by Ghanaian farmers because of discomfort associated with the hot and humid weather and their costs. However, there is the urgent need for farmers’ attention to be drawn to the usefulness of the PPEs through practical demonstrations by extension staff. Okoffo et al. (2016) reported that the influence of extension service on the use of PPE is significant enough to strengthen it in order to increase farmers’ knowledge and awareness of the consequences of applying pesticides without PPE. The study showed that the age of farmers had a significant influence on their knowledge about the use of pesticides. A bivariate analysis using the Chi-square revealed statistically significant associations between age and knowledge variables such as; the use of improper fitted lid, identification of wrong wind direction during spraying, knowledge during pouring and loading of pesticides as well as wrong movement during spraying of pesticides (χ2 = 32.236, P < 0.001). There was also significant association between educational level attained and knowledge (χ2 = 3.614; P ≤ 0.05). Work experience or duration of farming also significantly influenced the knowledge of respondents (P < 0.001).
The study also showed that the age of farmers had a significant influence on their knowledge about the use of pesticides. A bivariate analysis using the Chi-square revealed statistically significant associations between age and knowledge variables such as; the use of improper fitted lid, identification of wrong wind direction during spraying, knowledge during pouring and loading of pesticides as well as wrong movement during spraying of pesticides (χ2 = 32.236, P < 0.001). There was also significant association between educational level attained and knowledge (χ2 = 3.614; P ≤ 0.05). Work experience or duration of farming also significantly influenced the knowledge of respondents (P < 0.001).
The study further revealed statistically significant associations between age and practice, such as the washing of hands after spraying, eat/drink or smoke during working with pesticides, keep meals near pesticides, drinking water near pesticide-treated fields, shower after pesticides exposure and changing of clothing immediately after pesticide exposure (P < 0.001). There was significant association between educational level attained and farm management practices (P < 0.05). Work experience or duration of farming was significantly associated with farm management practices at 5% level of significance (P ≤ 0.05).
Interactions with the farmers revealed that they are not conversant with the pesticides law and the provisions in it to safeguard them and the environment. The registration authorities in collaboration with the extension services educate the farmers at their meetings of their roles and responsibilities regarding the pesticides law, its provisions and penalties especially sections 44 and 56–62. The behaviour and action of farmers have been motivated by certain factors that pertain to their setting and circumstances. Interviewed farmers indicated that 76% of them use products immediately, while 24% use the products within a month. Storage is limited since sales outlets are within reach of the communities, the farms are small and finances are limited. The decrease in the time of storage for the use of the products is encouraging, as the likelihood of exposure to the pesticides and related ill effects are reduced, since most farmers store pesticides in their house but not in bedrooms (89%). Five percent of the respondents keep it somewhere on the farm for later use. 2 and 4% of the farmers stored the pesticides in their general stores and bedrooms, respectively. Storing pesticides in the homes and bedrooms for long durations can lead to exposure and risk of intoxication (Clarke et al. 1997). Kimani and Mwanthi (1995), Murphy et al. (2002) and Ngowi et al. (2001) report that it is very common in many developing countries to store pesticides at unguarded places in their homes. In the upper East region of Ghana, 15 farmers died in 2010 which were attributed to pesticides poisoning, mostly related to poor storage of pesticides (The Northern Presbyterian Agricultural Services and Partners 2012). Seventy percent of the farmers purchase pesticides from local dealers/retailers, while 6% obtained the products from importers/local agents in the cities. Those who purchased them from consultants of the importing companies were 4%, and remaining were those involved in the governments mass spraying exercise in Tontro site (20%).
Questions on skills and knowledge for storage of pesticide and use of recommended application of pesticides (n = 156)
Item | Yes | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Skills and knowledge of storage | ||
Stored in the house, not bedroom | 138 | 89 |
Somewhere on the farm for later use | 9 | 5 |
Store pesticides in general stores | 3 | 2 |
Store in the house, bedroom | 6 | 4 |
Recommended application | ||
Label recommendation | 41 | 26 |
Supplier recommendation | 109 | 70 |
Own recommendation | 6 | 4 |
Decision for selection of pesticide for use (n = 156)
Item | Yes | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Seasonal occurrence of pest | 70 | 45 |
Preventive reasons | 23 | 15 |
Pest density control | 12 | 8 |
Curative factors | 6 | 4 |
Weather factors, | 5 | 3 |
Defensive related use | 5 | 3 |
Routine application | 34 | 22 |
Have you experienced any of the listed symptoms following pesticide application? (n = 156)
Symptom | Yes | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Headache | 156 | 100 |
Burning sensation in eyes/face | 156 | 100 |
Fever | 146 | 94 |
Watering eye | 156 | 100 |
Skin rash | 142 | 91 |
Itching and skin irritation | 156 | 100 |
Dizziness | 154 | 99 |
Cold, breathlessness and/or chest pain | 122 | 78 |
Forgetfulness | 136 | 87 |
Loss of libido | 83 | 53 |
Salivation and vomiting | 110 | 71 |
Abdominal pain/diarrhoea | 117 | 75 |
Weakness | 156 | 100 |
3.1.2 Pesticides import, distribution and retail
Number of formulated pesticide products registered or provisionally cleared in 2003 and 2011.
Source: Environmental Protection Agency-Ghana, Annual Reports, Accra. “Other” includes rodenticides, nematicides, fumigants and other conventional pesticides, and other chemicals used as pesticides such as petroleum oil
Compliance to Pesticide Registration Licence by pesticide dealers
Question | Yes | Percentage |
---|---|---|
(a) Has this place been inspected by the EPA/PPRSD (2014/15)? | ||
Importer/distributor (n = 13) | 13 | 100 |
Pesticide retailer (n = 30) | 30 | 100 |
(b) Has the activity been licensed by the EPA | ||
Importer/Distributor (n = 13) | 13 | 100 |
Pesticide Retailer (n = 30) | 23 | 77 |
(c) Technical Know-how/Use of PPEs | ||
Importer/distributor | ||
i. Know the Pesticide Law | 13 | 100 |
ii. Do you have the current pesticide registration list (Dec. 2014)? | 7 | 54 |
iii. Knowledge/skill to identify symptoms of pest attack? | 13 | 100 |
iv. Technical Knowledge on field diagnosis of pest? | 13 | 100 |
v. Know the different pesticide application methods? | 13 | 100 |
vi. Use of PPE | 3 | 23 |
Retailer | ||
i. Know the Pesticide Law | 30 | 100 |
ii. Do you have the current pesticide registration list (Dec. 2014)? | 0 | 0 |
iii. Knowledge/skill to identify symptoms of pest attack? | 5 | 17 |
iv. Technical Knowledge on field diagnosis of pest? | 6 | 20 |
v. Know the different pesticide application methods? | 26 | 87 |
vi. Use of PPE | 11 | 37 |
The displayed products were not expired (Table 9). This was to be expected as their ability to import pesticide products are tied into the renewal of licenses. However, 23% of the retail outlets had their licenses expired or in the process of being renewed in violation of section 40 (1) of the Act. Similar observations were made regarding their knowledge of the pesticides law, as their appreciation of it was generally inadequate. The distributors and retailers violated section 44 (4 and 5) of the Act. The provision and use of PPEs as well as the technical knowledge on the handling of pesticides by retailers was low (Table 9).
The observation suggests the probable shortage of expert advice and technical support on pesticides for farmers who may patronize these shops leading to problems of indiscriminate use, high frequency of application and application of pesticides with the same mode of action which may lead to pest resistance and resurgence and associated indirect costs. Gill and Garg (2014) discussed other potential management options including cultural and physical control, host plant resistance, biocontrol, and the use of biopesticides. Although having limited knowledge, many farmers still prefer to contact a pesticides retailer instead of an extension official when problems arise, because of their close proximity. Mengistie et al. (2014) reported a similar trend for seeking for information by farmers in Ethiopia. Discussion with owners of the shops indicated that most of their recruited staff upon successful training in pesticides management resign to either establish their own businesses or join companies with better remunerations. However, since the level of know-how of the retailers needs further improvement, rigorous information dissemination by the extension service is required.
3.2 State policy actors of pesticides
The state policy actors of pesticides was considered at national (Ghana EPA and PPRSD) and local (extension staff) levels. The state actors are important to transfer knowledge to importers, distributors/retailers and farmers and to increase the implementation of policy at both the national and the local (farm) level.
3.2.1 National state actors
Ranking of responses to questions and related observation (n = 17)
Rank | Motivation (M)/resource (R)/information (I) | Observation | Sum of responses |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Know the Pesticide Law | I | 85 |
1 | Do you have the current pesticide registration list (Dec. 2014) | I | 85 |
1 | Familiar with the pesticide registration process? | I | 85 |
4 | Know the different pesticide application methods? | I | 79 |
4 | Work itself interesting | M | 79 |
6 | Current Job is satisfactory | M | 77 |
7 | Knowledge/skill to identify symptoms of pest attack? | I | 75 |
7 | Technical Knowledge on field diagnosis of pest? | I | 75 |
9 | Job security | M | 66 |
10 | The relation between management and employees | M | 64 |
11 | Technical staff for risk assessment of submitted pesticide dossiers? | R | 59 |
12 | In-service training and skills development on current job satisfaction | M | 56 |
13 | Sufficient space to work | M | 51 |
14 | Pesticide user manuals are available to be effectively used by pesticide dealers | R | 49 |
15 | Accredited laboratory to test pesticide products? | R | 44 |
16 | Carrier structure and promotion on current job satisfactory | M | 34 |
17 | Recognition, rewards, praise by supervisors | M | 32 |
18 | Financial benefits and bonuses | M | 30 |
18 | No. of pesticide inspectors assigned to dealers and users of pesticides proportional? | R | 30 |
21 | Salary is encouraging | M | 21 |
21 | Transport facilities are adequate to access pesticide dealers and users? | R | 21 |
Diagram showing hierarchical cluster of observation [motivation (1–10), resources (11–15), and information (16–21)] by policy implementers
The first cluster (most left) are state policy actors who know the pesticides law, have the current pesticides registration list, are familiar with the pesticides registration process, know the different pesticides application methods, have knowledge/skill to identify symptoms of pest attack, have technical knowledge on the diagnosis of pest in the field, find the work itself interesting, and are satisfied with their current job. These people find their work to be the most significant contributor to their motivation. Motivation, resources and information are significant to achieving their required job. This cluster can be described as the work result recognition group (Zámečník 2014).
The second cluster (middle) concerns the relation between management and employees, technical staff for risk assessment of submitted pesticide dossiers, in-service training and skills development on current job satisfaction, sufficient space to work, pesticide user manuals are available to be effectively used by pesticide dealers, and carrier structure and promotion on current job satisfaction. To a large extent, the second cluster is linked to the first cluster, and motivation and resources are significant to achieving this required job.
The third cluster (most right) is composed of accredited laboratory to test pesticide products, recognition of actors input to achieving results by management, rewards and praise by supervisors for success, financial benefits and bonuses, number of pesticide inspectors assigned to dealers and users of pesticides proportional, unattractive salary, lack of transport facilities to adequately access pesticide dealers and users. In a similar study by Mengistie et al. (2014) in Ethiopia, majority of the actors indicated that they were underpaid given their workload. This cluster can be called the materialistic cluster since motivation and resources are significant to achieving their required job, and these are the main factors undermining the proper implementation of the pesticide registration policy (Zámečník 2014).
3.2.2 Local state actors
Responses of state actors at local level (n = 15)
Item | Yes | Percentage |
---|---|---|
(A) Motivation | ||
i. Current job is satisfactory | 12 | 80 |
ii. In service training and skills development on current job satisfaction | 9 | 60 |
iii. Work itself interesting | 13 | 86 |
iv. Carrier structure and promotion on current job satisfaction | 11 | 73 |
v. Salary is encouraging | 3 | 20 |
vi. Job security | 15 | 100 |
vii. The relation between management and employees | 9 | 60 |
viii. Financial benefits and bonuses | 3 | 20 |
ix. Recognition, rewards, praise by supervisors | 3 | 20 |
x. Sufficient space to work | 10 | 66 |
(B) Resource | ||
i. Transport facilities are adequate to access pesticide dealers and users? | 5 | 33 |
ii. No. of pesticide inspectors/extension assigned to dealers and users of pesticides proportional? | 0 | 0 |
iii. Pesticide user manuals are available to be effectively used by pesticide dealers and farmers? | 11 | 73 |
(C) Information | ||
i. Know the Pesticide Law | 15 | 100 |
ii. Do you have the current pesticide registration list (Dec. 2014)? | 8 | 53 |
iii. Knowledge/skill to identify symptoms of pest attack? | 15 | 100 |
iv. Technical Knowledge on field diagnosis of pest? | 15 | 100 |
v. Know the different pesticide application methods? | 15 | 100 |
4 Conclusion
Pesticides legislation on registration and licensing is relatively well developed in Ghana. The study shows a couple of challenges in the policy implementation. These findings have a number of effects on pesticides implementation policy and agricultural sustainability in general. The focus of this study was that policy implementation processes are interaction processes between state actors (policy implementers) and non-state actors (farmers and pesticide dealers, importers, etc.) in relation to attributes as information, motivation and resources. The pesticides policy implementation in Ghana has not been able to adequately deal with the non-state actors such as pesticide dealers with respect to the choice of particular pesticides for a given problem and technical knowledge on field diagnosis of pests and diseases, hence making it difficult to professionally dispense pesticides to farmers including advice on the use of PPEs. Although some farmers are aware of the risks associated with pesticide use, adequate protection provided by PPEs is hardly used. Adequate training on the pesticide handling, use and diagnosis of disease symptoms in the field is required, and more state actors and suppliers are needed to train farmers to rotate the use of chemical pesticide thus reducing the risk of pest resistance. Also, farmers should be encouraged to use their old clothes during preparation and spray operations instead of buying special clothes for spraying, which may be expensive for them. Farmers with a combination of a bit of education and extensive experience identified in study could be used to promote best knowledge, attitude and practices to other farmers. Farmers should also be trained on acute and chronic symptoms of pesticide poisoning and for them to better appreciate the necessary remediative steps to take once they experience such symptoms.
Most importantly, our study reflects the stronger involvement of state actors with the responsibilities to make available to non-state actors various sources of information with regard to pesticides use, management of pesticides and the pesticides law as well as friendly PPE alternatives for farmers through government intervention at subsidized prices. Finally, the pesticides regulations should be passed, and implementers (Ghana EPA/PPRSD) should also be motivated and resourced enough to carry out their mandate in Ghana.
Notes
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Prof. Peter Oosterveer for his valuable comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. We are also thankful to staff of EPA/CCMC, Accra and PPRSD of MoFA, Pokuase offices for providing the necessary data, Isaac Nyameke and Joanitta Saforo-Baah for their assistance. The work was sponsored by a scholarship provided by the Ghana Education Trust Fund (GETFund).
Supplementary material
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