Skip to main content

Environmentally stratified sampling design for the development of Great Lakes environmental indicators

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment volume 102, pages 41–65 (2005)Cite this article

Abstract

Understanding the relationship between human disturbance and ecological response is essential to the process of indicator development. For large-scale observational studies, sites should be selected across gradients of anthropogenic stress, but such gradients are often unknown for a population of sites prior to site selection. Stress data available from public sources can be used in a geographic information system (GIS) to partially characterize environmental conditions for large geographic areas without visiting the sites. We divided the U.S. Great Lakes coastal region into 762 units consisting of a shoreline reach and drainage-shed and then summarized over 200 environmental variables in seven categories for the units using a GIS. Redundancy within the categories of environmental variables was reduced using principal components analysis. Environmental strata were generated from cluster analysis using principal component scores as input. To protect against site selection bias, sites were selected in random order from clusters. The site selection process allowed us to exclude sites that were inaccessible and was shown to successfully distribute sites across the range of environmental variation in our GIS data. This design has broad applicability when the goal is to develop ecological indicators using observational data from large-scale surveys.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Andreasen, J.K., O’Neill, R.V., Noss, R. and Slosser, N.C.: 2001, ‘Considerations for the development of a terrestrial index of ecological integrity’, Ecol. Indicators 1, 21–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, M.P. and Heyligers, P.C.: 1991, ‘Vegetation Survey Design, a New Approach: Gradsect Sampling’, in: C.R. Margules and M.P. Austin (eds), Nature Conservation: Cost Effective Biological Surveys and Data Analysis, CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 31–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, J.E., Buhl, T.K., Guntenspergen, G.R., Norling, W. and Sklebar, H.T.: 2001, ‘Duck populations as indicators of landscape condition in the prairie pothole region’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 69, 29–47.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, R.G.: 1989, ‘Explanatory supplement to the ecoregions map of the continents’, Environ. Conserv. 15(4), 307–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barber, M.C. (ed.): 1994, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program: Indicator Development Strategy, EPA/620/R-94/022. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brazner, J.C.: 1997, ‘Regional, habitat, and human development influences on coastal wetland and beach fish assemblages in Green Bay, Lake Michigan’, J. Great Lakes Res. 23, 36–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brazner, J.C., Tanner, D.K., Jensen, D.A. and Lemke, A.: 1998, ‘Relative abundance and distribution of ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus) in a Lake Superior coastal wetland fish assemblage’, J. Great Lakes Res. 24, 293–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brazner, J.C. and Jensen, D.A.: 1999, ‘Zebra mussel [Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas)] colonization of rusty crayfish [Orconectes rusticus (Girard)] in Green Bay, Lake Michigan’, Am. Midland Nat. 143, 250–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, J., Jr., McCormick, P.V. and Niederlehner, B.R.: 1993, ‘A proposed framework for developing indicators of ecosystem health’, Hydrobiol. 263, 1–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cleland, D.T., Avers, P.E., McNabb, W.H., Jensen, M.E., Bailey, R.G., King, T. and Russel, W.E.: 1997, ‘National Heirarchical Framework of Ecological Units’, in: M. S. Boyce and A. Haney (eds), Ecosystem Manage. Appl. Sustainable Forest and Wildlife Resour., Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, pp. 181–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, W.G.: 1965, ‘The planning of observational studies of human populations’, J. R. Stat. Soc., Series A 128, 234–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, A.: 2002, ‘The assessment of herbaceous plant cover in wetlands as an indicator of function’, Ecol. Indicators 2, 287–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dale, V.H. and Beyeler, S.C.: 2001, ‘Challenges in the development and use of ecological indicators’, Ecol. Indicators 1, 3–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Detenbeck, N., Johnston, C.A. and Niemi, G.J.: 1990, ‘Use of a Geographic Information System to Assess the Effect of Wetlands on Lake Water Quality in the Minneapolis/St. Paul Metropolitan Area’, in: Proceedings of the Minnesota Lake Management Conference, Brainerd, MN, pp. 81–85.

  • Detenbeck, N.E., Johnston, C.A. and Niemi, G.J.: 1993, ‘Wetland effects on lake water quality in the Minneapolis/St. Paul metropolitan area,’ Landscape Ecol. 8, 39–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Detenbeck, N.E., Galatowitsch, S.M., Atkinson, J. and Ball, H.: 1999, ‘Evaluating perturbations and developing restoration strategies for inland wetlands in the Great Lakes Basin,’ Wetlands 19, 789–820.

    Google Scholar 

  • Environment Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 2003, State of the Great Lakes 2003, EPA 905-R-03-004.

  • Fore, L.: 2003, Developing Biological Indicators: Lessons Learned from Mid-Atlantic Streams, EPA 903/R-003/003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Information and Mid-Atlantic Integrated Assessment Program, Region 3, Ft. Meade, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fore, L.S. and Grafe, C.: 2002, ‘Using diatoms to assess the biological condition of large rivers in Idaho (U.S.A.)’, Freshw. Biol. 47, 2015–2027.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gesch, D., Oimoen, M., Greenlee, S., Nelson, C., Steuck, M. and Tyler, D.: 2002, ‘The National Elevation Dataset’, Photogramm. Eng. Rem. Sens. 68(1), 5–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, R.W.: 1993, ‘Effects of Zebra Mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) on Benthic Fauna of Lake St. Clair’, in: T.F. Nalepa and D.W. Scholesser (eds), Zebra Mussels: Biology, Impacts, and Control, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, pp. 415–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann, H.C.: 1990, ‘Climate change impacts on Laurentian Great Lakes levels,’ Clim. Change 17, 49–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herdendorf, C.E., Hartley, S.M. and Barnes, M.D. (eds): 1981, Fish and Wildlife Resources of the Great Lakes Coastal Wetlands Within the United States, Volumes 1–6. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-81/02-v1-v6.

  • Herlihy, A. T., Larsen, D. P., Paulsen, S. G., Urquhart, N. S. and Rosenbaum, B. J.: 2000, ‘Designing a spatially balanced, randomized site selection process for regional stream surveys: The EMAP mid-Atlantic pilot study’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 63, 95–113.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holland, A.F. (ed.): 1990, Near Coastal Plan for 1990, Estuaries, EPA/600/4-90/033. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Narragansett, RI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, R.M., Kaufmann, P.R., Herlihy, A.T., Kincaid, T.M., Reynolds, L. and Larsen, D.P.: 1998, ‘A process for developing and evaluating indices of fish assemblage integrity’, Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55, 1618–1631.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunsaker, C.T., Levine, D.A., Timmins, S.P., Jackson, B.L. and O’Neill, R.V.: 1992, ‘Landscape Characterization for Assessing Regional Water Quality’, in: D.H. McKenzie, D.E. Hyatt and V.J. McDonald (eds), Ecological Indicators, Elsevier, New York, NY, pp. 997–1006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunsaker, C.T. and Carpenter, D.E. (eds): 1990, Ecological Indicators for the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program, EPA/600/3-90/060. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, L.E., Kurtz, J.C. and Fisher, W.S. (eds): 2000, Evaluation Guidelines for Ecological Indicators, EPA/620/R-99/005. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC. 107p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, L.B. and Gage, S.H.: 1997, ‘Landscape approaches to the analysis of aquatic ecosystems’, Freshw. Biol. 37, 113–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C.A.: 1984, ‘Wetlands in the Wisconsin Landscape,’ Wisconsin Nat. Resour. 8, 4–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C.A., Detenbeck, N.E. and Niemi, G.J.: 1990, ‘The cumulative effects of wetlands on stream water quality and quantity: A landscape approach’, Biogeochem. 10, 105–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C.A. and Meysembourg, P.: 2002, ‘Comparison of the Wisconsin and national wetlands inventories’, Wetlands 22(2), 386–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karr, J.R. and Chu, E.W.: 1999, Restoring Life in Running Waters: Better Biological Monitoring, Island Press, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennish, M.J.: 2002, ‘Environmental threats and environmental future of estuaries,’ Environ. Conserv. 29, 78–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keough, J.R., Thompson, T.A., Guntenspergen, G.R. and Wilcox, D.A.: 1999, ‘Hydrogeomorphic factors and ecosystem responses in coastal wetlands of the Great Lakes,’ Wetlands 19(4), 821–834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keys, J.E., Jr., Carpenter, C.A., Hooks, S.L., Koeneg, F.G., McNab, W.H., Russell, W.E. and Smith, M.L.: 1995, Ecological Units of the Eastern United States–First Approximation, Technical Publication R8-TP 21. Map (scale 1:3,500,000). Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunkel, K., Changon, S.A., Croley II, T.E. and Quinn, F.H.: 1998, ‘Transposed climates for study of water supply variability on the Laurentian Great Lakes’, Climate Change 38, 387–404.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, D.P., Thornton, K.W., Urquhart, N.S. and Paulsen, S.G.: 1994, ‘The role of sample surveys for monitoring the condition of the nation’s lakes’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 32, 101–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnuson, J.J., Webster, K.E., Assel, R.A., Bowser, C.J., Dillon, P.J., Eaton, J.G., Evans, H.E., Fee, E.J., Hall, R.I., Mortsch, L.R., Schindler, D.W. and Quinn, F.W.: 1997, ‘Potential effects of climate changes on aquatic systems: Laurentian Great Lakes and Precambrian shield region’, Hydrolog. Proc. 11, 825–871.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minc, L.D. and Albert, D.A.: 1998, ‘Great Lakes Coastal Wetlands: Abiotic and Floristic Characterization’, Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI.

  • Mortsch, L.D.: 1998, ‘Assessing the impact of climate change on the Great Lakes shoreline wetlands’, Climate Change 40, 391–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mortsch, L.D. and Quinn, F.H.: 1996, ‘Climate change scenarios for Great Lakes Basin ecosystem studies’, Limnol. Oceanogr. 41, 903–416.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Natural Resource Council (NRC): 2000, Ecological Indicators for the Nation, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Wetlands Inventory (NWI): 1990, Photointerpretation Conventions for the National Wetlands Inventory, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory Center, St. Petersburg, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, J., Bradbury, S. and Swartout, J.: 1999, ‘Derivation of wildlife values for mercury’, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part B 2, 325–355.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, S.B., Cormier, S.M., Smith, M. and Christian Jones, R.: 2000, ‘Can biological assessments discriminate among types of stress? A case study from the Eastern Corn Belt Plains ecoregion’, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 19, 1113–1119.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, T.J., Jackson, L.E. and Brooks, R.P.: 1998, ‘A bird community index of biotic integrity for the Mid-Atlantic Highlands’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 51, 145–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, R.J., Walls, T.E. and Hughes, R.M.: 2000, ‘Using multiple taxonomic groups to index the ecological condition of lakes’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 61, 207–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olsen, A.R., Sedransk, J., Edwards, D., Gotway, C.A., Liggett, W., Rathburn, S., Reckhow, K.H. and Young, L.J.: 1999, ‘Statistical issues for monitoring ecological and natural resources in the United States’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 54, 1–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osenberg, C.W., Schmitt, R.J., Holbrook, S.J., Abu-Sara, K.E. and Flegal, A.R.: 1994, ‘Detection of environmental impacts: Natural variability, effect size, and power analysis’, Ecol. Appl. 4, 16–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Overton, W.S. and Stehman, S.V.: 1995, ‘Design implications of anticipated data uses for comprehensive monitoring programmes’, Environ. Ecol. Stat. 2, 287–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rencher, A.C.: 1995, Methods of Multivariate Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, C., Johnson, L.B. and Host, G.E.: 1996, ‘Landscape-scale influence on stream habitats and biota’, Can. J. Fish Aquatic Sci. 53, 295–311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, C. and Johnson, L.B.: 1998, ‘Landscape Perspectives on Ecological Risk Assessment’, in: M.C. Newman and C.L. Strojan (eds), Risk Assessment: Logic and Measurement, Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, MI, pp. 255–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Royall, R.M.: 1970. ‘On finite population sampling theory under certain linear regression models’, Biometrika 57(2), 377–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • SAS Institute: 2000, SAS OnlineDoc®,Version 8. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schreuder, H.T., Gregoire, T.G. and Weyer, J.P.: 2001, ‘For what applications can probability and non-probability sampling be used?’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 66, 281–291.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seaber, P.R., Kapinos, F.P. and Knapp, G.L.: 1987, Hydrologic Unit Maps, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2294, 63 p.

  • Simon, T.P., Jankowski, R. and Morris, C.: 2000, ‘Modification of an index of biotic integrity for assessing vernal ponds and small palustrine wetlands using fish, crayfish, and amphibian assemblages along southern Lake Michigan’, Aquat. Ecosys. Health Manage. 3, 407–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skalski, J.R.: 1990, ‘A design for long-term status and trends monitoring’, J. Environ. Manage. 30, 139–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, Jr., D.L. and Urquhart, N.S.: 2000, ‘Response designs and support regions in sampling continuous domains’, Environmetrics 11, 13–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, Jr., D.L. and Olsen, A.R.: 1999, ‘Spatially restricted surveys over time for aquatic resources’, J. Agric. Biol. Environ. Stat. 4, 415–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suter II, G.W., Norton, S.B. and Cormier, S.M.: 2002, ‘A methodology for inferring the causes of observed impairments in aquatic ecosystems’, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21, 1101–1111.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • The Nature Conservancy: 1994, The Conservation of Biological Diversity in the Great Lakes Ecosystem: Issues and Opportunities, The Nature Conservancy Great Lakes Program. Chicago, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urquhart, N.S., Overton, W.S. and Birks, D.S.: 1993, ‘Chapter 3. Comparing Sampling Designs for Monitoring Ecological Status and Trends: Impact of Temporal Patterns’, in Barnett and Turkmann (eds), Stat. Environ., John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, pp. 71–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 1994, The U.S. EPA Reach File Version 3.0 Alpha Release (RF3-Alpha) Technical Reference, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 1998, ‘Guidelines for ecological risk assessment’, EPA/630/R-95/002Fa, Federal Register 63(93), 26846–26924.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 2002, A Framework for Assessing and Reporting on Ecological Condition: An SAB Report, EPA-SAB-EPEC-02-009, EPA Science Advisory Board, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Government of Canada: 1995, The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource, U.S. EPA, Chicago, IL. 46 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek, P.M., Aber, J., Howarth, R.W., Likens, G.E., Matson, P.A., Schindler, D.W., Schlesinger, W.H. and Tilman, G.D.: 1997, ‘Human Alteration of the Global Nitrogen Cycle: Causes and Consequences’, Issues in Ecology 1, Special publication, Ecological Society of America. 15 pp.

  • Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., Wylie, B.K. and Van Driel, N.: 2001, ‘Completion of the 1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the Conterminous United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper Data and Ancillary Data Sources’, Photogramm. Eng. Rem. Sens. 67, 650–652.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisberg, S.B., Frithsen, J.B., Holland, A.F., Paul, J.F., Scott, K.J., Summers, J.K., Wilson, H.T., Valente, R., Heimbuch, D.G., Gerritsen, J., Schimmel, S.C. and Latimer, R.W.: 1993, EMAP-Estuaries Virginian Province 1990 Demonstration Project Report, EPA 620/R-93/006, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Narragansett, RI.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Water and the Environment, Natural Resources Research Institute, University of Minnesota Duluth, 5013 Miller Trunk Highway, Duluth, Minnesota, USA

    Nicholas P. Danz, Gerald J. Niemi, Valerie J. Brady, Tom Hollenhorst, Lucinda B. Johnson, George E. Host, Joann M. Hanowski, Terry Brown & John Kingston

  2. Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Minnesota Duluth, 10 University Drive, Duluth, Minnesota, USA

    Ronald R. Regal

  3. Department of Biology, University of Minnesota Duluth, 10 University Drive, Duluth, Minnesota, USA

    Gerald J. Niemi

  4. Center for Biocomplexity Studies, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA

    Carol A. Johnston

  5. Mid-Continent Ecology Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 6201 Congdon Blvd., Duluth, Minnesota, USA

    John R. Kelly

Authors
  1. Nicholas P. Danz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ronald R. Regal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gerald J. Niemi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Valerie J. Brady
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tom Hollenhorst
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Lucinda B. Johnson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. George E. Host
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Joann M. Hanowski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Carol A. Johnston
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Terry Brown
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. John Kingston
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. John R. Kelly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicholas P. Danz.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Danz, N.P., Regal, R.R., Niemi, G.J. et al. Environmentally stratified sampling design for the development of Great Lakes environmental indicators. Environ Monit Assess 102, 41–65 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-005-1594-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-005-1594-8

Keywords

  • anthropogenic stress
  • ecological indicators
  • GIS
  • Great Lakes
  • human disturbance gradient
  • sampling design