Groundwater fluoride contamination, probable release, and containment mechanisms: a review on Indian context

Review Paper
First Online:
Received:
Accepted:
  • 85 Downloads

Abstract

Fluoride contamination in the groundwater has got great attention in last few decades due to their toxicity, persistent capacity and accumulation in human bodies. There are several sources of fluoride in the environment and different pathways to enter in the drinking water resources, which is responsible for potential effect on human health. Presence of high concentration of fluoride ion in groundwater is a major issue and it makes the water unsuitable for drinking purpose. Availability of fluoride in groundwater indicates various geochemical processes and subsurface contamination of a particular area. Fluoride-bearing aquifers, geological factors, rate of weathering, ion-exchange reaction, residence time and leaching of subsurface contaminants are major responsible factors for availability of fluoride in groundwater. In India, several studies have reported that the groundwater of several states are contaminated with high fluoride. The undesirable level of fluoride in groundwater is one of the most natural groundwater quality problem, which affects large portion of arid and semiarid regions of India. Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and West Bengal are the relatively high-fluoride-contaminated states in India. Chronic ingestion of high doses of fluoride-rich water leads to fluorosis on human and animal. Over 66 million Indian populations are at risk due to excess fluoride-contaminated water. Therefore, groundwater contamination subject to undesirable level of fluoride needs urgent attention to understand the role of geochemistry, hydrogeology and climatic factors along with anthropogenic inputs in fluoride pollution.

Keywords

Hydrogeochemistry Fluoride contamination Groundwater Mobility Microbial dissolution of minerals Geology Fluorosis 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Notes

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the editor and the anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and the critical comments.

References

  1. Abe, I., Iwasaki, S., Tokimoto, T., Kawasaki, N., Nakamura, T., & Tanada, S. (2004). Adsorption of fluoride ions onto carbonaceous materials. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 275, 35–39.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2003.12.031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Adhikary, S. K., Tipnis, U. K., Harkare, W. P., & Govindan, K. P. (1989). Defluoridation during desalination of brackish water by electrodialysis. Desalination, 71, 301–312.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-9164(89)85031-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Agalakova, N. I., & Gusev, G. P. (2011). Effect of inorganic fluoride on living organisms of different phylogenetic level. Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology, 47, 393–406.  https://doi.org/10.1134/S002209301105001X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Alabdulaaly, A. I., Al-Zarah, A. I., & Khan, M. A. (2013). Occurrence of fluoride in ground waters of Saudi Arabia. Applied Water Science, 3, 589–595.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-013-0105-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Ali, S., Thakur, S. K., Sarkar, A., & Shekhar, S. (2016). Worldwide contamination of water by fluoride. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 14, 291–315.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0563-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Amalraj, A., & Pius, A. (2013). Health risk from fluoride exposure of a population in selected areas of Tamil Nadu south India. Food Science and Human Wellnes, 2, 75–86.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2013.03.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Amor, Z., Barioub, B., Mameri, N., Taky, M., Nicolasb, S., & Elmidaoui, A. (2001). Fluoride removal Corn brackish water by electrodialysis. Desalination, 133, 215–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Anazawa, K. (2006). Fluorine and coexisting volatiles in the geosphere: The Role in Japanese volcanic rocks. In A. Tressaud (Ed.), Fluorine and the environment: Atmospheric chemistry, emissions, & lithosphere (pp. 187–224). Amsterdam: Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Andezhath, S. K., Susheela, A. K., & Ghosh, G. (1999). Fluorosis management in India: The impact due to networking between health and rural drinking water supply agencies. IAHS-AISH Publication, 260, 159–165.Google Scholar
  10. Araya, O., Wittwer, F., & Villa, A. (1993). Evolution of fluoride concentration in cattle and grass following a volcanic eruption. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 35, 437–440.  https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.126.26.641.Google Scholar
  11. Arif, M., Hussain, I., Hussain, J., Sharma, S., & Kumar, S. (2012). Fluoride in the drinking water of Nagaur Tehsil of Nagaur district, Rajasthan, India. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 88(6), 870–875.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-012-0572-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Arnesen, A. K. M. (1998). Effect of fluoride pollution on pH and solubility of Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, K and organic matter in soil from Ardal (Western Norway). Water, Air, and Soil pollution, 103, 375–388.  https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004921600022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Arumugam, K., & Elangovan, K. (2009). Hydrochemical characteristics and groundwater quality assessment in Tirupur region, Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental Geology, 58, 1509–1520.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1652-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Arveti, N., Sarma, M. R. S., Aitkenhead-Peterson, J. A., & Sunil, K. (2011). Fluoride incidence in groundwater: A case study from Talupula, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 172, 427–443.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1345-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Arvind, B. A., Isaac, A., Murthy, N. S., & Shivaraj, N. S. (2012). Prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis and genu valgum among school children in rural field practice area of a medical college. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 2, 465–469.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(12)60101-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. ATSDR. (2003). Toxicological profile for fluorides, hydrogen fluoride, and fluorine; US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry; Atlanta, GA. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp11.pdf. Accessed May 2017.
  17. Avtar, R., Kumar, P., Singh, C. K., Sahu, N., Verma, R. L., Thakur, J. K., et al. (2013a). Hydrogeochemical assessment of groundwater quality of Bundelkhand, India using statistical approach. Water Quality, Exposure and Health, 5, 105–115.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-013-0094-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Avtar, R., Kumar, P., Surjan, A., Gupta, L. N., & Roychowdhury, K. (2013b). Geochemical processes regulating groundwater chemistry with special reference to nitrate and fluoride enrichment in Chhatarpur area, Madhya Pradesh, India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 70, 1699–1708.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2257-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Ayoob, S., Gupta, A. K., & Bhat, V. T. (2008). A conceptual overview on sustainable technologies for the defluoridation of drinking water. Critical Reviews in Environment Science and Technology, 38, 401–470.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10643380701413310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Banerjee, A. (2015). Groundwater fluoride contamination: A reappraisal. Geoscience Frontiers, 6, 277–284.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2014.03.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Barot, V. V. (1998). Occurrence of endemic fluorosis in human population of North Gujarat, India: Human health risk. Bulletin of Environment Contamination and Toxicology, 61, 303–310.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s001289900763.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Batabyal, A. K. (2017). Hydrogeochemical processes and contaminants enrichment with special emphasis on fluoride in groundwater of Birbhum district, West Bengal. India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76, 285.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6584-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Beg, M. K., Srivastav, S. K., Carranza, E. J. M., & de Smeth, J. B. (2011). High fluoride incidence in groundwater and its potential health effects in parts of Raigarh district, Chhattisgarh, India. Current Science, 100, 750–754.Google Scholar
  24. Bellomo, S., Aiuppa, A., D’Alessandro, W., & Parello, F. (2007). Environmental impact of magmatic fluorine emission in the Mt. Etna area. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 165, 87–101.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.04.013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Bhagure, G. R., & Mirgane, S. R. (2011). Heavy metal concentrations in groundwaters and soils of Thane region of Maharashtra, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 173, 643–652.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1412-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Bhattacharya, H. N., & Chakrabarti, S. (2011). Incidence of fluoride in the groundwater of Purulia District, West Bengal: A geo-environmental appraisal. Current Science, 101, 152–155.Google Scholar
  27. Brindha, K., & Elango, L. (2011). Fluoride in groundwater: Causes, implications and mitigation measures. In S. D. Monroy (Ed.), Fluoride properties, applications and environmental management (pp. 111–136). New York: Nova Publishers.Google Scholar
  28. Brindha, K., Jagadeshan, G., Kalpana, L., & Elango, L. (2016). Fluoride in weathered rock aquifers of southern India: Managed aquifer recharge for mitigation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, 8302–8316.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6069-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Brindha, K., Rajesh, R., Murugan, R., & Elango, L. (2011). Fluoride contamination in groundwater in parts of Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1348-0.Google Scholar
  30. Bronckers, A. L. J. J., Lyaruu, D. M., & DenBesten, P. K. (2009). The impact of fluoride on ameloblasts and the mechanisms of enamel fluorosis. Journal of Dental Research, 88, 877–893.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034509343280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Bruggen, B. V., Manttari, M., & Nystrom, M. (2008). Drawbacks of applying nanofiltration and how to avoid them: A review. Separation and Purification Technology, 63, 251–263.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2008.05.010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Brunson, L. R., & Sabatini, D. A. (2013). Practical considerations, column studies and natural organic material competition for fluoride removal with bone char and aluminum amended materials in the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley. Sci: Science of the Total Environment.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.048.Google Scholar
  33. Brunt, R., Vasak, L., & Griffioen, J. (2004). Fluoride in groundwater: Probability of occurrence of excessive concentration on global scale. Report SP 2004-2. International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC).Google Scholar
  34. Budyanto, S., Kuo, Y.-L., & Liu, J. C. (2015). Adsorption and precipitation of fluoride on calcite nanoparticles: A spectroscopic study. Separation and Purification Technology, 150, 325–331.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.07.016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Camargo, J. A. (2003). Fluoride toxicity to aquatic organisms: A review. Chemosphere, 50, 251–264.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(02)00498-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Cape, J. N., Fowler, D., & Davison, A. (2003). Ecological effects of sulfur dioxide, fluorides, and minor air pollutants: Recent trends and research needs. Environment International, 29, 201–211.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-4120(02)00180-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Castel, C., Schweizer, M., Simonnot, M. O., & Sardin, M. (2000). Selective removal of fluoride ions by a two-way ion-exchange cyclic process. Chemical Engineering Science, 55, 3341–3352.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(00)00009-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Cengeloglu, Y., Kır, E., & Erso, M. (2002). Removal of fluoride from aqueous solution by using red mud. Separation and Purification Technology, 28, 81–86.  https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Chae, G. T., Yun, S. T., Mayer, B., Kim, K. H., Kim, S. Y., Kwon, J. S., et al. (2007). Fluorine geochemistry in bedrock groundwater of South Korea. Science of the Total Environment, 385, 272–283.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.06.038.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Chakrabarti, S., & Bhattacharya, H. N. (2013). Inferring the hydro-geochemistry of fluoride contamination in Bankura district, West Bengal: A case study. Journal Geological Society of India, 82, 379–391.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-013-0165-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Chakraborti, D., Chanda, C. R., Samanta, G., et al. (2000). Fluorosis in Assam, India. Current Science, 78(12), 1421–1423.Google Scholar
  42. Chakraborti, D., Rahman, M. M., Chatterjee, A., Das, D., Das, B., Nayak, B., et al. (2016). Fate of over 480 million inhabitants living in arsenic and fluoride endemic Indian districts: Magnitude, health, socio-economic effects and mitigation approaches. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 38, 33–45.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.05.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Chandrawanshi, C. K., & Patel, K. S. (1999). Fluoride deposition in central India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 55, 251–265.  https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005987106200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Chatterjee, S., & De, S. (2014). Adsorptive removal of fluoride by activated alumina doped cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP) mixed matrix membrane. Separation and Purification Technology, 125, 223–238.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2014.01.055.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Chatterjee, M. K., & Mohabey, N. K. (1998). Potential fluorosis problems around Chandidongri, Madhya Pradesh, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 20, 1–4.  https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1006529925395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Chaturvedi, A. K., Yadava, K. P., Pathak, K. C., & Singh, V. N. (1990). Defluoridation of water by adsorption on fly ash. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 49, 51–61.  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00279509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Chauhan, V. S., Dwivedi, P. K., & Iyengar, L. (2007). Investigations on activated alumina based domestic defluoridation units. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 139, 103–107.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.06.014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Chen, N., Zhang, Z., Feng, C., Sugiura, N., Li, M., & Chen, R. (2010). Fluoride removal from water by granular ceramic adsorption. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 348, 579–584.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2010.04.048.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Cheng, J., Meng, X., Jing, C., & Hao, J. (2014). La3+-modified activated alumina for fluoride removal from water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 278, 343–349.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.06.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Chidambaram, S., Bala Krishna Prasad, M., Manivannan, R., Karmegam, U., Singaraja, C., Anandhan, P., et al. (2013). Environmental hydrogeochemistry and genesis of fluoride in groundwaters of Dindigul district, Tamilnadu (India). Environmental Earth Sciences, 68, 333–342.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1741-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Chopra, S., & Choudhury, P. (2011). A study of response spectra for different geological conditions in Gujarat, India. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 31, 1551–1564.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2011.06.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Choubisa, S. L. (2001). Endemic fluorosis in southern Rajasthan, India. Fluoride, 34, 61–70.Google Scholar
  53. Choubisa, S. L., & Choubisa, D. (2015). Neighbourhood fluorosis in people residing in the vicinity of superphosphate fertilizer plants near Udaipur city of Rajasthan (India). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, 497.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4723-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Choubisa, S. L., & Choubisa, D. (2016). Status of industrial fluoride pollution and its diverse adverse health effects in man and domestic animals in India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(8), 7244–7254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Chouhan, S., & Flora, S. J. S. (2010). Arsenic and fluoride: Two major ground water pollutants. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 48, 666–678.Google Scholar
  56. Churchill, H. V., Rowley, R. J., & Martin, L. N. (1948). Fluorine content of certain vegetation in a Western Pennsylvania area. Analytical Chemistry, 20, 69–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Cronin, S. J., Manoharan, V., Hedley, M. J., & Loganathan, P. (2000). Fluoride: A review of its fate, bioavailability, and risks of fluorosis in grazed-pasture systems in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 43, 295–321.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2000.9513430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. D’Alessandro, W. (2006). Human fluorosis related to volcanic activity: A review. In A. G. Kungolos, C. A. Brebbia, C. P. Samaras, & V. Popov (Eds.), Environmental toxicology (pp. 21–30). Ashurst: WIT Press.Google Scholar
  59. Daifullah, A. A. M., Yakout, S. M., & Elreefy, S. A. (2007). Adsorption of fluoride in aqueous solutions using KMnO4-modified activated carbon derived from steam pyrolysis of rice straw. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 147, 633–643.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.01.062.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Dar, M. A., Sankar, K., & Dar, I. A. (2011). Fluorine contamination in groundwater: A major challenge. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 173, 955–968.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1437-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Das, N., Deka, J. P., Shim, J., Patel, A. K., Kumar, A., Sarma, K. P., et al. (2016). Effect of river proximity on the arsenic and fluoride distribution in the aquifers of the Brahmaputra floodplains, Assam, northeast India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 2–3, 130–142.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2016.07.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Das, B., Talukdar, J., Sarma, S., Gohain, B., Dutta, R. K., Das, H. B., et al. (2003). Fluoride and other inorganic constituents in groundwater of Guwahati, Assam, India. Current Science, 85, 657–661.Google Scholar
  63. Dash, J. P., Sarangi, A., & Singh, D. K. (2010). Spatial variability of groundwater depth and quality parameters in the national capital territory of Delhi. Environmental Management, 45, 640–650.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-010-9436-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Datta, A. S., Chakrabortty, A., De Dalal, S. S., & Lahiri, S. C. (2014). Fluoride contamination of underground water in West Bengal, India. Fluoride, 47, 241–248.Google Scholar
  65. Datta, P. S., Deb, D. L., & Tyagi, S. K. (1996). Stable isotope (18O) investigations on the processes controlling fluoride contamination of groundwater. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 24, 85–96.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-7722(96)00004-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Datta, P. S., Tyagi, S. K., Mookerjee, P., Bhattacharya, S. K., Gupta, N., & Bhatnagar, P. D. (1999). Groundwater NO3 and F contamination processes in Pushkar valley, Rajasthan as reflected from 18O isotopic signature and 3H recharge studies. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 56, 209–219.  https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005903619718.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Deotare, B. C., Kajale, M. D., Kshirsagar, A. A., & Rajaguru, S. N. (1998). Geoarcheological and palaeoenvironmental studies around Bap-Malar playa, district Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Current Science, 3, 316–320.Google Scholar
  68. Devadas, D. J., Rao, N. S., Rao, B. T., Rao, K. V. S., & Subrahmanyam, A. (2007). Hydrogeochemistry of the Sarada river basin, Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Geology, 52, 1331–1342.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-006-0577-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Dey, S., Goswami, S., & Ghosh, U. C. (2004). Hydrous ferric oxide (HFO)—A scavenger for fluoride from contaminated water. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 158, 311–323.  https://doi.org/10.1023/B:WATE.0000044854.71497.b6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Dey, R. K., Swain, S. K., Mishra, S., Sharma, P., Patnaik, T., Singh, V. K., et al. (2012). Hydrogeochemical processes controlling the high fluoride concentration in groundwater: A case study at the Boden block area, Orissa, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184, 3279–3291.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2188-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Dhiman, S. D., & Keshari, A. K. (2006). Hydrogeochemical evaluation of high-fluoride groundwaters: A case study from Mehsana district, Gujarat, India. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 51, 1149–1162.  https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.51.6.1149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Dissanayake, C. B. (1991). The fluoride problem in the groundwater of Sri Lanka-environmental management and health. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 38, 137–155.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00207239108710658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Dubey, S., Agarwal, M., & Gupta, A. B. (2018). Recent developments in defluoridation of drinking water in India. In V. Singh, S. Yadav, & R. Yadava (Eds.), Environmental pollution. Water Science and Technology Library (pp. 345–356). Singapore: Springer.Google Scholar
  74. Durmaz, F., Kara, H., Cengeloglu, Y., & Ersoz, M. (2005). Fluoride removal by donnan dialysis with anion exchange membranes. Desalination, 177, 51–57.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2004.11.016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Edmunds, W. M., & Smedley, P. L. (2005). Fluoride in natural waters. In O. Selinus (Ed.), Essentials of medical geology (pp. 311–336). Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar
  76. Edmunds, W. M., & Walton, N. R. G. (1983). The lincolnshire limestone-hydrogeochemical evolution over a ten-year period. Journal of Hydrology, 61, 201–211.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(83)90248-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Ekstrand, J., Fomon, S. J., & Ziegler, E. E. (1994). Fluoride pharmacokinetics in infancy. Pediatric Research, 35(2), 157–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. Faure, G. (1991). Principles and applications of inorganic geochemistry (p. 626). New York, NY: Macmillan Publ. Co.Google Scholar
  79. Gaciri, S. J., & Davies, T. C. (1993). The occurrence and geochemistry of fluoride in some natural waters of Kenya. Journal of Hydrology, 143, 395–412.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(93)90201-J.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. Garcia, M. G., & Borgnino, L. (2015). Fluoride in the context of the environment. In V. R. Preedy (Ed.), Fluorine: Chemistry, analysis, function and effects (pp. 3–18). Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Garg, V. K., Suthar, S., Singh, S., Sheoran, A., Garima, M., & Jain, S. (2009). Drinking water quality in villages of southwestern Haryana, India: Assessing human health risks associated with hydrochemistry. Environmental Geology, 58, 1329–1340.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1636-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Geise, G. M., Lee, H. S., Miller, D. J., Freeman, B. D., Mcgrath, J. E., & Paul, D. R. (2010). Effect of molecularweight and temperature on physical aging of thinglassy poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) films. Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics, 48, 1685–1718.  https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Getachew, T., Hussen, A., & Rao, V. M. (2014). Defluoridation of water by activated carbon prepared from banana (Musa paradisiaca) peel and coffee (Coffea arabica) husk. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-014-0545-8.Google Scholar
  84. Ghorai, S., & Pant, K. K. (2005). Equilibrium, kinetics and breakthrough studies for adsorption of fluoride on activated alumina. Separation and Purification Technology, 42, 265–271.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2004.09.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Ghosh, S., Chakraborty, S., & Roy, B. (2010). Assessment of health risks associated with fluoride-contaminated groundwater in Birbhum district of West Bengal, India. Journal of Environmental Protection Science, 4, 13–21.Google Scholar
  86. Ghosh, A., Mukherjee, K., Ghosh, S. K., & Saha, B. (2013). Sources and toxicity of fluoride in the environment. Research on Chemical Intermediates, 39, 2881–2915.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11164-012-0841-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Giambro, N. J., Prostak, K., & DenBesten, P. K. (1995). Characterization of fluorosed human enamel by color reflectance, ultrastructure, and elemental composition. Caries Research, 29, 251–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Giri, D. K., Ghosh, R. C., Dey, S., Mondal, M., Kashyap, D. K., & Dewanagan, G. (2013). Incidence of hydrofluorosis and its adverse effects on animal health in Durg district, Chhattisgarh. Current Science, 105, 1477–1479.Google Scholar
  89. Giridharan, L., Venugopal, T., & Jayaprakash, M. (2008). Evaluation of the seasonal variation on the geochemical parameters and quality assessment of the groundwater in the proximity of river Cooum, Chennai, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 143, 161–178.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9965-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Gopalakrishnan, S. B., Viswanathan, G., & Ilango, S. S. (2012). Prevalence of fluorosis and identification of fluoride endemic areas in Manur block of Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, South India. Applied Water Science, 2, 235–243.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-012-0043-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. Guo, F., Jiang, G., & Yuan, D. (2007). Major ions in typical subterranean rivers and their anthropogenic impacts in southwest karst areas, China. Environmental Geology, 53, 533–541.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0665-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. Gupta, S., Banerjee, S., Saha, R., Datta, J. K., & Mondal, N. (2006). Fluoride geochemistry of groundwater in Nalhati-1 block of the Birbhum district, West Bengal, India. Fluoride, 39, 318–320.Google Scholar
  93. Gupta, S. K., Deshpande, R. D., Agarwal, M., & Raval, B. R. (2005). Origin of high fluoride in groundwater in the North Gujarat-Cambay region, India. Hydrogeology Journal, 13, 596–605.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-004-0389-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Gupta, M. K., Singh, V., Rajwanshi, P., Agarwal, M., Rai, K., Srivastava, S., et al. (1999). Groundwater quality assessment of tehsil Kheragarh, Agra (India) with special reference to fluoride. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 59, 275–285.  https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006117604763.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Gwalani, L. G., Rock, N. M. S., Chang, W. J., Fernandez, S., Allegre, C. J., & Prinzhofer, A. (1993). Alkaline rocks and carbonatites of Amba Dongar and adjacent areas, Deccan Igneous Province, Gujarat, India: 1. Geology, petrography and petrochemistry. Mineralogy and Petrology, 47, 219–253.  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01161569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Halmer, M. M., Schmincke, H. U., & Graf, H. F. (2002). The annual volcanic gas input into the atmosphere, in particular into the stratosphere: A global data set for the past 100 years. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 115, 511–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Handa, B. K. (1975). Geochemistry and genesis of fluoride-containing ground waters in India. Groundwater, 13, 275–281.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1975.tb03086.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. He, Z., Liu, R., Xu, J., Liu, H., & Qu, J. (2015). Defluoridation by Al-based coagulation and adsorption: Species transformation of aluminum and fluoride. Separation and Purification Technology, 148, 68–75.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.05.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Hem, J. D. (1985). Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water (3rd ed.). U.S Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2254. U.S. Geological Survey, Alexandria, p. 263.Google Scholar
  100. Hichour, M., Persin, F., Sandeaux, J., & Gavach, C. (2000). Fluoride removal from waters by Donnan dialysis. Separation and Purification Technology, 18, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. Ho, L. N., Ishihara, T., Ueshima, S., Nishiguchi, H., & Takita, Y. (2004). Removal of fluoride from water through ion exchange by mesoporous Ti oxohydroxide. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 272, 399–403.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2003.08.051.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Hong, B., Joo, R., Lee, K., Lee, D., Rhie, J., & Min, S. (2016). Fluoride in soil and plant. Korean Journal of Agricultural Science, 43, 522–536.  https://doi.org/10.7744/kjoas.20160054.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. Hu, K., & Dickson, J. M. (2006). Nanofiltration membrane performance on fluoride removal from water. Journal of Membrane Science, 279, 529–538.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2005.12.047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. Hussain, I., Arif, M., & Hussain, J. (2012). Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of central Rajasthan, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184, 5151–5158.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2329-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. Hussain, J., Husain, I., & Arif, M. (2013). Fluoride contamination in groundwater of central Rajasthan, India and its toxicity in rural habitants. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, 95, 1048–1055.  https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2013.832545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. Hussain, J., Hussain, I., & Sharma, K. C. (2010). Fluoride and health hazards: Community perception in a fluorotic area of central Rajasthan (India): An arid environment. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 162, 1–14.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-0771-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. Hustedt, J., Mistry, N., Sandaker, A. L., Saini, S., & John, A. (2008). Social inclusion: A case study of the Rajasthan Integrated Fluorosis Mitigation Programme. http://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites/indiawaterportal.org/files/a_study_of_the_extent_of_social_inclusion_in_the_government_of_rajasthan_integrated_fluorosis_mitigation_programme_2008.pdf.
  108. Hutchens, E., Valsami-Jones, E., Harouiya, N., Chaïrat, C., Oelkers, E. H., & McEldoney, S. (2006). An experimental investigation of the effect of bacillus megaterium on apatite dissolution. Geomicrobiology Journal, 23, 177–182.  https://doi.org/10.1080/01490450600599239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. Jacks, G., Bhattacharya, P., Chaudhary, V., & Singh, K. P. (2005). Controls on the genesis of some high-fluoride groundwaters in India. Applied Geochemistry, 20, 221–228.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2004.07.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. Jagadeshan, G., Kalpana, L., & Elango, L. (2015). Hydrogeochemistry of high fluoride groundwater in hard rock aquifer in a part of Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu, India. Geochemistry International, 53, 554–564.  https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016702915060038.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. Jain, C. K., Ali, I., & Sharma, M. K. (1999). Fluoride contamination in groundwater Indian scenario. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 19, 260–266.Google Scholar
  112. Jain, C. K., Bandyopadhyay, A., & Bhadra, A. (2010). Assessment of ground water quality for drinking purpose, district Nainital, Uttarakhand, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 166, 663–676.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-1031-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. Jayaprakash, M., Giridharan, L., Venugopal, T., Krishna Kumar, S. P., & Periakali, P. (2008). Characterization and evaluation of the factors affecting the geochemistry of groundwater in Neyveli, Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental Geology, 54, 855–867.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0868-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. Jha, S. K., Mishra, V. K., Sharma, D. K., & Damodaran, T. (2011a). Fluoride in the environment and its metabolism in humans. In D. M. Whitacre (Ed.), Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology (Vol. 211, pp. 121–142). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
  115. Jha, S. K., Nayak, A. K., & Sharma, Y. K. (2009a). Fluoride occurrence and assessment of exposure dose of fluoride in shallow aquifers of Makur, Unnao district Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 156, 561–566.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0505-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  116. Jha, S. K., Nayak, A. K., & Sharma, Y. K. (2010). Potential fluoride contamination in the drinking water of Marks Nagar, Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 32, 217–226.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-009-9277-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. Jha, S. K., Nayak, A. K., & Sharma, Y. K. (2011b). Site specific toxicological risk from fluoride exposure through ingestion of vegetables and cereal crops in Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 74, 940–946.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.01.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. Jha, P. K., Tiwari, J., Singh, U. K., Kumar, M., & Subramanian, V. (2009b). Chemical weathering and associated CO2 consumption in the Godavari river basin, India. Chemical Geology, 264, 364–374.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.03.025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. Jolly, S. S., Singh, B. M., & Mathur, O. C. (1969). Endemic fluorosis in Punjab (India). American Journal of Medicine, 47, 553–563.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(69)90186-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. Kagne, S., Jagtap, S., Dhawade, P., Kamble, S. P., Devotta, S., & Rayalu, S. S. (2008). Hydrated cement: A promising adsorbent for the removal of fluoride from aqueous solution. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 154, 88–95.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.09.111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. Kalisinska, E., & Palczewska-Komsa, M. (2011). Teeth of the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758) as a bioindicator in studies on fluoride pollution. Acta Theriologica (Warsz), 56, 343–351.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-011-0039-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. Kantharaja, D. C., Lakkundi, T. K., Basavanna, M., & Manjappa, S. (2012). Spatial analysis of fluoride concentration in groundwaters of Shivani watershed area, Karnataka state, South India, through geospatial information system. Environmental Earth Sciences, 65, 67–76.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1065-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. Karthikeyan, K., Nanthakumar, K., Velmurugan, P., Tamilarasi, S., & Lakshmanaperumalsamy, P. (2010). Prevalence of certain inorganic constituents in groundwater samples of Erode district, Tamilnadu, India, with special emphasis on fluoride, fluorosis and its remedial measures. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 160, 141–155.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0664-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. Karthikeyan, G., Pius, A., & Apparao, B. V. (1996). Contribution of fluoride in water and food to the prevalence of fluorosis in areas of Tamil Nadu in south India. Fluoride, 29, 151–155.Google Scholar
  125. Karunagaran, V. M., & Subramanian, A. N. (1992). Fluoride pollution in the Uppanar estuary, Cuddalore, South India. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 24, 515–517.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(92)90477-N.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  126. Khairnar, M. R., Dodamani, A. S., Jadhav, H. C., Naik, R. G., & Deshmukh, M. A. (2015). Mitigation of fluorosis—A review. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 9, ZE05–ZE09.  https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2015/13261.6085.Google Scholar
  127. Khanna, P. (2014). Physico-chemical parameters of groundwater of Bishnah, district Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, 85, 121–130.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s40011-014-0345-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. Kierdorf, U., & Kierdorf, H. (2005). Antlers as biomonitors of environmental pollution by lead and fluoride: A review. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 51, 137–150.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-005-0093-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. Kirk, P. W. W., & Lester, J. N. (1986). Halogen compounds. In R. M. Harrison & R. Perry (Eds.), Handbook of air pollution analysis (pp. 425–462). Dordrecht: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. Kotoky, P., Barooah, P. K., Baruah, M. K., Goswami, A., Borah, G. C., Gogoi, H. M., et al. (2008). Fluoride and endemic fluorosis in the Karbianglong district, Assam, India. Fluoride, 41, 72–75.Google Scholar
  131. Krishnamachari, K. A., & Krishnaswamy, K. (1973). Genu valgum and osteoporosis in an area of endemic fluorosis. Lancet, 20, 877–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. Krishnan, S., Indu, R., Bhatt, S., Pathak, F., Thakkar, A., & Vadgama, U. (2007). Reverse osmosis plants for rural water treatment in Gujarat. http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/reverse-osmosis-plants-rural-water-treatment-gujarat-study-carewater.
  133. Kukillaya, J. P., & Narayanan, T. (2014). Role of weathering of ferromagnesian minerals and surface water irrigation in evolving and modifying chemistry of groundwater in Palakkad district, Kerala, with special reference to its fluoride content. Journal Geological Society of India, 84, 579–589.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-014-0165-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  134. Kularatne, K. U. K. S., & Pitawala, H. M. T. G. (2012). Leaching of fluoride from biotite mica in soil: Implications for fluoride in shallow groundwater. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2, 1–7.  https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/739051.Google Scholar
  135. Kumar, M., Das, A., Das, N., Goswami, R., & Singh, U. K. (2016). Co-occurrence perspective of arsenic and fluoride in the groundwater of Diphu, Assam, Northeastern India. Chemosphere, 150, 227–238.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.02.019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. Kumar, M., Kumar, P., Ramanathan, A. L., Bhattacharya, P., Thunvik, R., Singh, U. K., et al. (2010). Arsenic enrichment in groundwater in the middle Gangetic Plain of Ghazipur District in Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 105, 83–94.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2010.04.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  137. Kumar, M., Kumari, K., Ramanathan, A., & Saxena, R. (2007). A comparative evaluation of groundwater suitability for irrigation and drinking purposes in two intensively cultivated districts of Punjab, India. Environmental Geology, 53, 553–574.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0672-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  138. Kumar, M., Kumari, K., Singh, U. K., & Ramanathan, A. (2009). Hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment of Muktsar, Punjab: Conventional graphical and multivariate statistical approach. Environmental Geology, 57, 873–884.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1367-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  139. Kumar, M., Ramanathan, A., Rao, M. S., & Kumar, B. (2006). Identification and evaluation of hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment of Delhi, India. Environmental Geology, 50, 1025–1039.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-006-0275-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. Kumar, B., Singh, U. K., & Mukherjee, I. (2017). Hydrogeological influence on the transport and fate of contaminants in the groundwater, India. JSM Biology, 2, 1–11.Google Scholar
  141. Kundu, M. C., & Mandal, B. (2009). Assessment of potential hazards of fluoride contamination in drinking groundwater of an intensively cultivated district in West Bengal, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 152, 97–103.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0299-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  142. Kundu, N., Panigrahi, M. K., Tripathy, S., Munshi, S., Powell, M. A., & Hart, B. R. (2001). Geochemical appraisal of fluoride contamination of groundwater in the Nayagarh district of Orissa, India. Environmental Geology, 41, 451–460.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540100414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  143. Latha, S. S., Ambika, S. R., & Prasad, S. J. (1999). Fluoride contamination status of groundwater in Karnataka. Current Science, 76, 730–734.Google Scholar
  144. Leveinen, J. (2001). Conceptual and analytical modeling of fracture zone aquifers in hard rock—Implications of pumping tests in the Pohjukansalo well field, east-central Finland. Geological survey of Finland, Espoo, Report YST-105, p. 73.Google Scholar
  145. Levy, S. M., Kohout, F. J., Kiritsyl, M. C., Heilman, J. R., & Wefel, J. S. (1995). Infants fluoride intake from drinking water alone, and from water added to formula, beverages, and food. Journal of Dental Research, 74, 1399–1407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. Li, Y., Jiang, Y., Wang, T., Zhang, C., & Wang, H. (2017). Performance of fluoride electrosorption using micropore-dominant activated carbon as an electrode. Separation and Purification Technology, 172, 415–421.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2016.08.043.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. MacDonald, H. E. (1969). Fluoride as air pollutant. Fluoride Quarterly Report, 2, 4–12. http://www.fluorideresearch.org/21/files/214-12.pdf. Accessed April 2017.
  148. Machiwal, D., & Jha, M. K. (2015). Identifying sources of groundwater contamination in a hard-rock aquifer system using multivariate statistical analyses and GIS-based geostatistical modeling techniques. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 4, 80–110.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2014.11.005.Google Scholar
  149. Madhavan, N., & Subramanian, V. (2002). Fluoride in fractionated soil samples of Ajmer district, Rajasthan. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 4, 821–822.  https://doi.org/10.1039/b208151b.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. Madsen, H. T. (2014). Membrane filtration in water treatment—Removal of micropollutants. In E. G. Sogaard (Ed.), Chemistry of advanced environmental purification processes of water fundamentals and applications (pp. 199–248). Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  151. Malayeri, B. E., Noori, M., & Jafari, M. (2012). Using the pollen viability and morphology for fluoride pollution biomonitoring. Biological Trace Element Research, 147, 315–319.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-011-9290-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. Maliyekkal, S. M., Shukla, S., Philip, L., & Nambi, I. M. (2008). Enhanced fluoride removal from drinking water by magnesia-amended activated alumina granules. Chemical Engineering Journal, 140, 183–192.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2007.09.049.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  153. Mamatha, P., & Rao, S. M. (2010). Geochemistry of fluoride rich groundwater in Kolar and Tumkur districts of Karnataka. Environmental Earth Sciences, 61, 131–142.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0331-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  154. Mani, A., Raji, V., Sakayanathan, P., Palanivel, S., Jayaraman, A., & Thayumanavan, P. (2017). Alteration of paraoxonase, arylesterase and lactonase activities in people around fluoride endemic area of Tamil Nadu, India. Clinica Chimica Acta, 471, 206–215.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2017.05.036.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  155. Manikandan, S., Chidambaram, S., Ramanathan, A. L., Prasanna, M. V., Karmegam, U., Singaraja, C., et al. (2012). A study on the high fluoride concentration in the magnesium-rich waters of hard rock aquifer in Krishnagiri district, Tamilnadu, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7, 273–285.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-012-0752-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  156. Marbaniang, D. G., Diengdoh, D. F., & Nongpiur, C. L. (2014). Preliminary investigation of the physico-chemical properties of a geothermal spring (hot spring) located at Jakrem, Meghalaya, India. Keanean Journal of Science, 3, 35–42.Google Scholar
  157. Matthess, G. (1982). The properties of groundwater (p. 498). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
  158. Medellin-Castillo, N. A., Leyva-Ramos, R., Padilla-Ortega, E., Perez, R. O., Flores-Cano, J. V., & Berber-Mendoza, M. (2014). Adsorption capacity of bone char for removing fluoride from water solution. Role of hydroxyapatite content, adsorption mechanism and competing anions. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 20, 4014–4021.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2013.12.105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  159. Meenakshi, & Maheshwari, R. C. (2006). Fluoride in drinking water and its removal. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 137, 456–463.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.02.024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  160. Meenakshi, G. V. K., & Renuka, M. A. (2004). Groundwater quality in some villages of Haryana India: Focus on fluoride and fluorosis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 106B, 85–97.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2003.09.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  161. Meenakshi, S., & Viswanathan, N. (2007). Identification of selective ion-exchange resin for fluoride sorption. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 308, 438–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  162. Mehta, D., Mazumdar, S., & Singh, S. K. (2015). Magnetic adsorbents for the treatment of water/wastewater—A review. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 7, 244–265.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2015.07.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  163. Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS). Annual Report 2013–2014. http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/Drinking_Water_Annual_Report_2013_14_English.pdf.
  164. Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS). Annual Report 2016–2017. http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/LOCAL_REF_275_1489985804118.pdf.
  165. Misra, A. K., & Mishra, A. (2007). Study of quaternary aquifers in Ganga Plain, India: Focus on groundwater salinity, fluoride and fluorosis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 144, 438–448.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.10.057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  166. Misra, A. K., Mishra, A., & Premraj, (2006). Escalation of groundwater fluoride in the Ganga alluvial plain of India. Fluoride, 39, 35–38.Google Scholar
  167. Mohapatra, M., Anand, S., Mishra, B. K., Giles, D. E., & Singh, P. (2009). Review of fluoride removal from drinking water. Journal of Environmental Management, 91, 67–77.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.08.015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  168. Mondal, D., Dutta, G., & Gupta, S. (2016a). Inferring the fluoride hydrogeochemistry and effect of consuming fluoride-contaminated drinking water on human health in some endemic areas of Birbhum district. West Bengal. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 38, 557–576.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9743-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  169. Mondal, P., & George, S. (2014). A review on adsorbents used for defluoridation of drinking water. Reviews in Environmental Science & Biotechnology, 14, 195–210.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-014-9356-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  170. Mondal, D., Gupta, S., Reddy, D. V., & Dutta, G. (2016b). Fluoride enrichment in an alluvial aquifer with its subsequent effect on human health in Birbhum district, West Bengal, India. Chemosphere.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.10.130.Google Scholar
  171. Mondal, D., Gupta, S., Reddy, D. V., & Nagabhushanam, P. (2014). Geochemical controls on fluoride concentrations in groundwater from alluvial aquifers of the Birbhum district, West Bengal, India. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 145, 190–206.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.06.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  172. Mondal, N. K., Pal, K. C., & Kabi, S. (2012). Prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis in relation to fluoride in ground water in the villages of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India. Environmentalist, 32, 70–84.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-011-9374-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  173. Mondal, N. C., Prasad, R. K., Saxena, V. K., Singh, Y., & Singh, V. S. (2009). Appraisal of highly fluoride zones in groundwater of Kurmapalli watershed, Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh (India). Environmental Earth Sciences, 59, 63–73.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0004-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  174. Mor, S., Singh, S., Yadav, P., Rani, V., Rani, P., Sheoran, M., et al. (2009). Appraisal of salinity and fluoride in a semi-arid region of India using statistical and multivariate techniques. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 31, 643–655.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-008-9222-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  175. Mukherjee, B., Rao, M. G., & Karunakaran, C. (1969). Genesis of kaolin deposits of Birbhum, West Bengal, India. Clay Minerals, 8, 161–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  176. Mukhopadhyay, D. K., & Sarolkar, P. B. (2012). Geochemical appraisal of Bakreshwar-Tantloi hot springs. Proceedings, Thirty-Seventh Work. Geotherm. Reserv. Eng. Stanford Univ. Stanford, California, January 30, SGP-TR-194, pp. 1–5.Google Scholar
  177. Muralidharan, D., Nair, A. P., & Sathyanarayana, U. (2002). Fluoride in shallow aquifers in Rajgarh Tehsil of Churu district, Rajasthan—An arid environment. Current Science, 83, 699–702.Google Scholar
  178. Mythri, H., & Dinesh, D. B. (2012). Current public health perspective of fluorosis mitigation project in Pavagadataluk, Karnataka. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 16(3), 124–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  179. Nagudi, B., Koeberl, C., & Kurat, G. (2003). Petrography and geochemistry of the Singo granite, Uganda, and implications for its origin. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 36, 73–87.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-5362(03)00014-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  180. Nandimandalam, J. R. (2012). Evaluation of hydrogeochemical processes in the Pleistocene aquifers of Middle Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 65, 1291–1308.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1377-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  181. Narayana, A. S., Khandare, A. L., & Krishnamurthi, M. V. R. S. (2004). Mitigation of fluorosis in Nalgonda district villages. In 4th international workshop on fluorosis prevention and defluoridation of water, pp. 98–106.Google Scholar
  182. Narsimha, A., & Sudarshan, V. (2013). Hydrogeochemistry of groundwater in Basara area, Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Applied Geochemistry, 15, 224–237.Google Scholar
  183. Narsimha, A., & Sudarshan, V. (2016a). Contamination of fluoride in groundwater and its effect on human health: A case study in hard rock aquifers of Siddipet, Telangana State, India. Applied Water Science.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0441-0.Google Scholar
  184. Narsimha, A., & Sudarshan, V. (2016b). Assessment of fluoride contamination in groundwater from Basara, Adilabad District, Telangana State, India. Applied Water Science.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0489-x.Google Scholar
  185. Nawalakhe, W. G., Kulkarni, D. N., Pathak, B. N., & Bulusu, K. R. (1974). Defluoridation of water with alum. Indian Journal of Environmental Health, 16, 202–210.Google Scholar
  186. Nayak, A. K., Chinchmalatpure, A. R., Rao, G. G., Jha, S. K., & Khandelwal, M. K. (2009a). An assessment of fluoride in the coastal aquifer of the Bara tract in Bharuch district, Gujarat (India). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 158, 315–317.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0585-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  187. Nayak, B., Roy, M. M., Das, B., Pal, A., Sengupta, M. K., De, S. P., et al. (2009b). Health effects of groundwater fluoride contamination. Clinical Toxicology, 47, 292–295.  https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650802660349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  188. Ndiaye, P. I., Moulin, P., Dominguez, L., Millet, J. C., & Charbit, F. (2005). Removal of fluoride from electronic industrial effluent by RO membrane separation removal of fluoride from electronic industrial effluent. Desalination, 173, 25–32.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2004.07.042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  189. NEERI, UNICEF. (2007). Report on Integrated Fluorosis Mitigation, p. 86.Google Scholar
  190. NSSO. (2006). Morbidity, health care and the condition of the aged. National Sample Survey, 60th Round, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India, New Delhi.Google Scholar
  191. Oinam, J. D., Ramanathan, A. L., & Singh, G. (2012). Geochemical and statistical evaluation of groundwater in Imphal and Thoubal district of Manipur, India. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 48, 136–149.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.11.017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  192. Ozsvath, D. L. (2009). Fluoride and environmental health: A review. Reviews in Environmental Science & Biotechnology, 8, 59–79.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-008-9136-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  193. Pal, B. (1983). Potential hazards of nitrate and fluoride in underground waters. Water Research, 17, 353–354.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(83)90190-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  194. Pandarinath, K., Prasad, S., Deshpande, R. D., & Gupta, S. K. (1999). Late Quaternary sediments from Nal Sarovar, Gujarat, India: Distribution and provenance. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Earth and Planetary Sciences), 108, 107–116.Google Scholar
  195. Panwar, M., Jha, M. P., Khandelwal, D., & Khandelwal, K. (2015). Hydro-geochemical study of high fluoride in groundwater with help of GIS application: A case study of Kishangarh, district Ajmer, Rajasthan. In K. L. Shrivastava & P. K. Shrivastava (Eds.), Frontiers of earth science (pp. 297–304). Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers.Google Scholar
  196. Patel, S. C., Khalkho, R., Patel, S. K., Sheikh, J. M., Behera, D., Chaudhari, S., et al. (2014). Fluoride contamination of groundwater in parts of eastern India and a preliminary experimental study of fluoride adsorption by natural haematite iron ore and synthetic magnetite. Environmental Earth Sciences, 72, 2033–2049.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3112-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  197. Patel, K. S., Sahu, B. L., Dahariya, N. S., Bhatia, A., Patel, R. K., Matini, L., et al. (2015). Groundwater arsenic and fluoride in Rajnandgaon District, Chhattisgarh, northeastern India. Applied Water Science.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0355-2.Google Scholar
  198. Pauwelsa, H., Negrel, P., Dewandel, B., Perrin, J., Mascre, C., Roy, S., et al. (2015). Hydrochemical borehole logs characterizing fluoride contamination in a crystalline aquifer (Maheshwaram, India). Journal of Hydrology, 525, 302–312.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.03.017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  199. Pemmaraju, M., & Rao, S. M. (2011). De-fluoridation of groundwater using magnesium oxide. Environmentalist, 31, 39–53.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-010-9299-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  200. Periakali, P., Subramanian, S., Eswaramoorthi, S., Arul, B., Rao, N. R., & Sridhar, S. G. D. (2001). Distribution of fluoride in the ground water of Salem and Namakkal districts, Tamil Nadu. Journal of Applied Geochemistry, 3, 120–132.Google Scholar
  201. Pettenati, M., Perrin, J., Pauwels, H., & Ahmed, S. (2013). Simulating fluoride evolution in groundwater using a reactive multicomponent transient transport model: Application to a crystalline aquifer of southern India. Applied Geochemistry, 29, 102–116.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2012.11.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  202. Pickering, W. F. (1985). The mobility of soluble fluoride in soils. Environmental Pollution (Series B), 9, 281–308.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0143-148X(85)90004-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  203. Piddennavar, R., & Krishnappa, P. (2013). Review on defluoridation techniques of water. International Journal of Engineering Science, 2, 86–94.Google Scholar
  204. Plaka, K., Ravindra, K., Mor, S., & Gauba, K. (2017). Risk factors and prevalence of dental fluorosis and dental caries in school children of north India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5684-6.Google Scholar
  205. Polomski, J., Fluhler, H., & Blaser, P. (1982). Accumulation of airborne fluoride in soils. Journal of Environmental Quality, 11, 457–461.  https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1982.00472425001100030028x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  206. Rai, K., Agarwal, M., Dass, S., & Shrivastav, R. (2000). Fluoride: Diffusive mobility in soil and some remedial measures to control its plant uptake. Current Science, 79, 1370–1373.Google Scholar
  207. Raichur, A. M., & Jyoti Basu, M. (2001). Adsorption of fluoride onto mixed rare earth oxides. Separation and Purification Technology, 24, 121–127.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S1383-5866(00)00219-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  208. Raju, N. J. (2016). Prevalence of fluorosis in the fluoride enriched groundwater in semi-arid parts of eastern India: Geochemistry and health implications. Quaternary International.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.05.028.Google Scholar
  209. Raju, N. J., Dey, S., & Das, K. (2009a). Fluoride contamination in groundwaters of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Current Science, 96, 979–985.Google Scholar
  210. Raju, N. J., Dey, S., Gossel, W., & Wycisk, P. (2012). Fluoride hazard and assessment of groundwater quality in the semi-arid upper Panda river basin, Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 57, 1433–1452.  https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2012.715748.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  211. Raju, N. J., Ram, P., & Dey, S. (2009b). Groundwater quality in the lower Varuna river basin, Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 73, 178–192.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-009-0074-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  212. Ramanaiah, S. V., Venkata Mohan, S., Rajkumar, B., & Sarma, P. N. (2006). Monitoring of fluoride concentration in ground water of Prakasham district in India: Correlation with physico-chemical parameters. Journal of Environmental Science & Engineering, 48, 129–134.Google Scholar
  213. Ranjan, R., & Ranjan, A. (2015). Fluoride toxicity in animals. SpringerBriefs in Animal Sciences (1st ed.). Berlin: Springer.  https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17512-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  214. Rao, N. S. (1997). The occurrence and behaviour of fluoride in the groundwater of the lower Vamsadhara river basin, India. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 42, 877–892.  https://doi.org/10.1080/02626669709492085.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  215. Rao, N. S. (2003). Groundwater quality: Focus on fluoride concentration in rural parts of Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 48, 835–847.  https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.48.5.835.51449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  216. Rao, N. S. (2009). Fluoride in groundwater, Varaha River Basin, Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 152, 47–60.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0295-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  217. Rao, N. S., & Devadas, D. J. (2003). Fluoride incidence in groundwater in an area of Peninsular India. Environmental Geology, 45, 243–251.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-003-0873-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  218. Rao, N. S., Devadas, D. J., & Rao, K. V. S. (2006). Interpretation of groundwater quality using principal component analysis from Anantapur district, Andhara Pradesh, India. Environmental Geosciences, 13, 239–259.  https://doi.org/10.1306/eg.02090504043.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  219. Rao, C. R. N., & Karthikeyan, J. (2012). Removal of fluoride from water by adsorption onto lanthanum oxide. Water, Air, and Soil pollution, 223, 1101–1114.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-011-0928-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  220. Rao, N. S., Rao, P. S., Dinakar, A., Rao, P. V. N., & Marghade, D. (2015). Fluoride occurrence in the groundwater in a coastal region of Andhra Pradesh. India: Applied Water Sci.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0338-3.Google Scholar
  221. Rao, N. S., Rao, V. V. S., & Gupta, C. P. (1998). Groundwater pollution due to discharge of industrial effluents in Venkatapuram area, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Geology, 33, 289–294.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540050248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  222. Rao, N. V. R., Rao, N., Rao, K. S. P., & Schuiling, R. D. (1993). Fluorine distribution in waters of Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Geology, 21, 84–89.  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00775055.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  223. Rao, N. S., Subrahmanyam, A., & Babu Rao, G. (2012). Fluoride-bearing groundwater in Gummanampadu sub-basin, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 70, 575–586.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2142-9.Google Scholar
  224. Ravindra, K., & Garg, V. K. (2006). Distribution of fluoride in groundwater and its suitability assessment for drinking purpose. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 16, 163–166.  https://doi.org/10.1080/09603120500538283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  225. Rawat, M., Singh, U. K., & Subramanian, V. (2010). Movement of toxic metals from small-scale industrial areas: A case study from Delhi, India. International Journal of Environment and Waste Management, 4, 224–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  226. Ray, D., Ravindar Rao, R., Bhoi, A. V., Biswas, A. K., Ganguly, A. K., & Sanyal, P. B. (2000). Physico-chemical quality of drinking water in Rohtas district of Bihar. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 61, 387–398.  https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006165615097.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  227. Reardon, E. J., & Wang, Y. (2000). A limestone reactor for fluoride removal from wastewaters. Environmental Science and Technology, 34, 3247–3253.  https://doi.org/10.1021/es990542k.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  228. Reddy, D. V., Nagabhushanam, P., & Ramesh, G. (2013). Turnover time of Tural and Rajvadi hot spring waters, Maharashtra, India. Current Science, 104, 1419–1424.Google Scholar
  229. Reddy, D. V., Nagabhushanam, P., Sukhija, B. S., Reddy, A. G. S., & Smedley, P. L. (2010). Fluoride dynamics in the granitic aquifer of the Wailapally watershed, Nalgonda District, India. Chemical Geology, 269, 278–289.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.10.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  230. Reddy, A. G. S., Reddy, D. V., & Kumar, M. S. (2016). Hydrogeochemical processes of fluoride enrichment in Chimakurthy pluton, Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75, 663.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5478-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  231. Reddy, D. R., Srikanth, R. D., & Misra, M. (1998). Fluorosis. Surgical Neurology, 49, 635–636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  232. Rogers, J. R., Bennett, P. C., & Choi, W. J. (1998). Feldspars as a source of nutrients for microorganisms. American Mineralogist, 83, 1532–1540.  https://doi.org/10.2138/am-1998-11-1241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  233. Rojas-mayorga, C. K., Bonilla-petriciolet, A., Aguayo-villarreal, I. A., Hernández-Montoya, V., Moreno-Virgen, M. R., Tovar-Gómez, R., et al. (2013). Optimization of pyrolysis conditions and adsorption properties of bone char for fluoride removal from water. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 104, 10–18.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2013.09.018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  234. Salve, P. R., Maurya, A., Kumbhare, P. S., Ramteke, D. S., & Wate, S. R. (2008). Assessment of groundwater quality with respect to fluoride. Bulletin of Environment Contamination and Toxicology, 81, 289–293.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-008-9466-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  235. Sankararamakrishnan, N., Sharma, A. K., & Iyengar, L. (2008). Contamination of nitrate and fluoride in ground water along the Ganges alluvial plain of Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 146, 375–382.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-0085-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  236. Sarkar, M., Banerjee, A., Pramanick, P. P., & Sarkar, A. R. (2006). Use of laterite for the removal of fluoride from contaminated drinking water. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 302, 432–441.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2006.07.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  237. Saxena, V. K., & Ahmed, S. (2001). Dissolution of fluoride in groundwater: A water–rock interaction study. Environmental Geology, 40, 1084–1087.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540100290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  238. Saxena, V. K., & Ahmed, S. (2003). Inferring the chemical parameters for the dissolution of fluoride in groundwater. Environmental Geology, 43, 731–736.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-002-0672-2.Google Scholar
  239. Saxena, A., Kulshrestha, U. C., Kumar, N., Kumari, K. M., & Srivastava, S. S. (1994). Distribution of air-borne fluoride: Vapour phase, particulate, precipitation and dry deposition. Environmental Technology, 15, 51–59.  https://doi.org/10.1080/09593339409385403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  240. Scaillet, B., & Macdonald, R. (2004). Fluorite stability in silicic magmas. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 147, 319–329.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-004-0559-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  241. Scheringer, M. (2009). Long-range transport of organic chemicals in the environment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 28, 677–690.  https://doi.org/10.1897/08-324R.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  242. Sehn, P. (2008). Fluoride removal with extra low energy reverse osmosis membranes: Three years of large scale field experience in Finland. Desalination, 223, 73–84.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.02.077.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  243. Selvam, S. (2015). A preliminary investigation of lithogenic and anthropogenic influence over fluoride ion chemistry in the groundwater of the southern coastal city, Tamilnadu, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4326-8.Google Scholar
  244. Shaji, E., Bindu, V. J., & Thambi, D. S. (2007). High fluoride in groundwater of Palghat district, Kerala. Current Science, 92, 240–245.Google Scholar
  245. Shankar, P. S. V., Kulkarni, H., & Krishnan, S. (2011). India’s groundwater challenge and the way forward. Economic and Political Weekly, xlvi, 37–45.Google Scholar
  246. Sharma, S., Jha, P. K., Ranjan, M. R., Singh, U. K., Kumar, M., & Jindal, T. (2017). Nutrient Chemistry of River Yamuna, India. Asian Journal of Water, Environmental Pollution, 14, 61–70.  https://doi.org/10.3233/AJW-170016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  247. Shekhar, S., & Sarkar, A. (2013). Hydrogeological characterization and assessment of groundwater quality in shallow aquifers in vicinity of Najafgarh drain of NCT Delhi. Journal of Earth System Science, 122, 43–54.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-012-0256-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  248. Shen, Y., Oki, T., Utsumi, N., Kanae, S., & Hanasaki, N. (2008). Projection of future world water resources under SRES scenarios: Water withdrawal. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 53, 11–33.  https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.53.1.11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  249. Shimizu, H., Shimahara, M., Miyamoto, M., Fujimoto, K., Morimoto, M., Horiuchi, T., et al. (2012). The report of the Hogenakkal water supply and Fluorosis Mitigation project in Krishnagiri and Dharmapuri districts, India, with the results of water analysis for fluoride and trace elements. Bulletin of the Osaka Medical College, 58, 9–15.Google Scholar
  250. Shivashankara, A. R., Shivaraja Shankara, Y. M., Hanumanth Rao, S., & Gopalakrishna Bhat, P. (2000). A clinical and biochemical study of chronic fluoride toxicity in children of Kheru Thanda of Gulbarga district, Karnataka, India. Fluoride, 33, 66–73.Google Scholar
  251. Shortt, H. E., McRobert, G. R., Barnard, T. W., & Mannadinayer, A. S. (1937). Endemic fluorosis in Madras Presidency, India. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 25, 553–561.Google Scholar
  252. Shulman, J. D., & Wells, L. M. (1997). Acute fluoride toxicity from ingesting home-use dental products in children, birth to 6 years of age. Journal of Public Health Dentistry, 57(3), 150–158.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-7325.1997.tb02966.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  253. Singaraja, C., Chidambaram, S., Anandhan, P., Prasanna, M. V., Thivya, C., Thilagavathi, R., et al. (2014). Geochemical evaluation of fluoride contamination of groundwater in the Thoothukudi district of Tamilnadu, India. Applied Water Science, 4, 241–250.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0157-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  254. Singh, A. K., Mondal, G. C., Kumar, S., Singh, T. B., Tewary, B. K., & Sinha, A. (2008b). Major ion chemistry, weathering processes and water quality assessment in upper catchment of Damodar River basin, India. Environmental Geology, 54, 745–758.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0860-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  255. Singh, B., Gaur, S., & Garg, V. K. (2007). Fluoride in drinking water and human urine in Southern Haryana, India. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 144, 147–151.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.10.010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  256. Singh, G., Joshi, R. D., & Singh, A. B. (1972). Stratigraphic and radiocarbon evidence for the age and development of three Salt Lake deposits in Rajasthan, India. Quaternary Research, 2, 496–505.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(72)90088-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  257. Singh, K., Lataye, D. H., & Wasewar, K. L. (2017). Removal of fluoride from aqueous solution by using bael (Aegle marmelos) shell activated carbon: Kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic study. Journal of Fluorine Chemistry, 194, 23–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  258. Singh, U. K., & Kumar, B. (2017). Pathways of heavy metals contamination and associated human health risk in Ajay River basin, India. Chemosphere, 174, 183–199.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  259. Singh, U. K., Kumar, M., Chauhan, R., Jha, P. K., Ramanathan, A. L., & Subramanian, V. (2008a). Assessment of the impact of landfill on groundwater quality: A case study of the Pirana site in western India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 141, 309–321.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9897-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  260. Singh, V., Narain, R., & Prakash, C. (1987). Fluoride in irrigation waters of Agra district, Uttar Pradesh. Water Research, 21(8), 889–890.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(87)80004-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  261. Singhal, B. B. S., & Gupta, R. P. (2010). Applied hydrogeology of fractured rocks (2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  262. Sivasankar, V., Darchen, A., Omine, K., & Sakthivel, R. (2016). Fluoride: A world ubiquitous compound, its chemistry, and ways of contamination. In V. Sivasankar (Ed.), Surface modified carbons as scavengers for fluoride from water (pp. 5–32). Cham: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  263. Skjelkvale, B. L. (1994). Factors influencing fluoride concentrations in Norwegian lakes. Water, Air, and Soil pollution, 77, 151–167.  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00483055.Google Scholar
  264. Slooff, W., Eerens H., Janus J., & Ros, J. (1989). Integrated criteria document: Fluorides. (Report No. 758474010). Bilthoven: National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/758474010.pdf.
  265. Somashekar, R. K., & Ramaswamy, S. N. (1983). Fluoride concentration in the water of the river Cauvery, Karnataka, India. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 21, 325–327.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00207238308710093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  266. Sreedevi, P. D., Ahmed, S., Made, B., Ledoux, E., & Gandolfi, J. M. (2006). Association of hydrogeological factors in temporal variations of fluoride concentration in a crystalline aquifer in India. Environmental Geology, 50, 1–11.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-0167-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  267. Srikanth, R., Gautam, A., Jaiswal, S. C., & Singh, P. (2013). Urinary fluoride as a monitoring tool for assessing successful intervention in the provision of safe drinking water supply in five fluoride-affected villages in Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185, 2343–2350.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2713-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  268. Srinivasamoorthy, K., Vijayaraghavan, K., Vasanthavigar, M., Sarma, S., Chidambaram, S., Anandhan, P., et al. (2012). Assessment of groundwater quality with special emphasis on fluoride contamination in crystalline bed rock aquifers of Mettur region, Tamilnadu, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 5, 83–94.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-010-0162-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  269. Sriraamadas, A. (1967). Geology of Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences-Section B, 66, 200–205.Google Scholar
  270. Srivastava, P., Juyal, N., Singhvi, A. K., Wasson, R. J., & Bateman, M. D. (2001). Liminescence chronology of river adjustment and incision of quaternary sediments in the alluvial plain of the Sabarmati river, north Gujarat, India. Geomorphology, 36, 217–229.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(00)00058-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  271. Subramani, T., Elango, L., & Damodarasamy, S. R. (2005). Groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural use in Chithar river basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental Geology, 47, 1099–1110.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-1243-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  272. Sujatha, D. (2003). Fluoride levels in the groundwater of the south-eastern part of Ranga Reddy district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Geology, 44, 587–591.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-003-0795-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  273. Sujatha, D., & Reddy, B. R. (2003). Quality characterization of groundwater in the south-eastern part of the Ranga Reddy district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Geology, 44, 579–586.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-003-0794-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  274. Sundaram, R. M., & Pareek, S. (1995). Quaternary facies and paleoenvironment in north and east of Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 46, 385–392.Google Scholar
  275. Susheela, A. K. (1999). Fluorosis management programme in India. Current Science, 77, 1250–1255.Google Scholar
  276. Susheela, A. K., Kumar, A., Bhatnagar, M., & Bahadur, R. (1993). Prevalence of endemic fluorosis with gastrointestinal manifestations in people living in some North-Indian villages. Fluoride, 26, 97–104.Google Scholar
  277. Suthar, S., Garg, V. K., Jangir, S., Kaur, S., Goswami, N., & Singh, S. (2008). Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of Northern Rajasthan, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 145, 1–6.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-0011-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  278. Symonds, R. B., Rose, W. I., & Reed, M. H. (1988). Contribution of Cl− and F− bearing gases to the atmosphere by volcanoes. Nature, 334, 415–418.  https://doi.org/10.1038/332141a0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  279. Tahaikt, M., Habbani, R. El, Haddou, A. A., Achary, I., Amor, Z., & Taky, M. (2007). Fluoride removal from groundwater by nanofiltration. Desalination, 212, 46–53.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.10.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  280. Tandon, S. K., Sareen, B. K., Rao, M. S., & Singhvi, A. K. (1997). Aggradation history and luminescence chronology of Late Quaternary semi-arid sequences of the Sabarmati basin, Gujarat, western India. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 128, 339–357.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(96)00035-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  281. Taunton, A. E., Welch, S. A., & Banfield, J. F. (2000a). Geomicrobiological controls on light rare earth element, Y and Ba distributions during granite weathering and soil formation. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 303–304, 30–36.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8388(00)00597-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  282. Taunton, A. E., Welch, S. A., & Banfield, J. F. (2000b). Microbial controls on phosphate and lanthanide distributions during granite weathering and soil formation. Chemical Geology, 169, 371–382.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(00)00215-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  283. Tavener, S. J., & Clark, J. H. (2006). Fluorine: Friend or Foe? A green chemist’s perspective. In A. Tressaud (Ed.), Fluorine and the environment: Agrochemicals, archaeology, green chemistry and water (Chapter 5, pp. 177–202). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
  284. Thivya, C., Chidambaram, S., Rao, M. S., Thilagavathi, R., Prasanna, M. V., & Manikandan, S. (2015). Assessment of fluoride contaminations in groundwater of hard rock aquifers in Madurai district, Tamil Nadu (India). Applied Water Science, 7, 1011–1023.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0312-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  285. Tirumalesh, K., Shivanna, K., & Jalihal, A. A. (2007). Isotope hydrochemical approach to understand fluoride release into groundwaters of Ilkal area, Bagalkot district, Karnataka, India. Hydrogeology Journal, 15, 589–598.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-006-0107-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  286. Turner, B. D., Binning, P., & Stipp, S. L. S. (2005). Fluoride removal by calcite: Evidence for fluorite precipitation and surface adsorption. Environmental Science and Technology, 39, 9561–9568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  287. Ullah, R., & Zafar, M. S. (2015). Oral and dental delivery of fluoride: A review. Fluoride, 48, 195–204.Google Scholar
  288. Uriah, L. A., Hyeladi, D., & Krzysztof, S. (2014). Assessment of potentially toxic metals in soil and sediments of the Keana Brinefield in the Middle Benue Trough, Northcentral Nigeria. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 3, 77–88.  https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.s.2014030602.19.Google Scholar
  289. Utom, A. U., Odoh, B. I., & Egboka, B. C. E. (2013). Assessment of hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater quality in the vicinity of Okpara coal and Obwetti fireclay mines, near Enugu town, Nigeria. Applied Water Science, 3, 271–283.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-013-0080-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  290. Vaish, A. K., Vaish, P., 2000. A case study of fluorosis mitigation in Dungarpur District, Rajasthan, India, in: 3rd international workshop on fluorosis prevention and defluoridation of water. pp. 97-104.Google Scholar
  291. Vasanthavigar, M., Srinivasamoorthy, K., & Prasanna, M. V. (2012). Evaluation of groundwater suitability for domestic, irrigational, and industrial purposes: A case study from Thirumanimuttar river basin, Tamilnadu, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184, 405–420.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-1977-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  292. Vasanthavigar, M., Srinivasamoorthy, K., Vijayaragavan, K., Rajiv Ganthi, R., Chidambaram, S., Anandhan, P., et al. (2010). Application of water quality index for groundwater quality assessment: Thirumanimuttar sub-basin, Tamilnadu, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 171, 595–609.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-1302-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  293. Verma, D. K., Bhunia, G. S., Shit, P. K., Kumar, S., Mandal, J., & Padbhushan, R. (2016). Spatial variability of groundwater quality of Sabour block, Bhagalpur district (Bihar, India). Applied Water Science.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0380-9.Google Scholar
  294. Vikas, C., Kushwaha, R. K., & Pandit, M. K. (2009). Hydrochemical status of groundwater in district Ajmer (NW India) with reference to fluoride distribution. Journal Geological Society of India, 73, 773–784.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-009-0062-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  295. Vike, E. (2005). Uptake, deposition and wash off of fluoride and aluminium in plant foliage in the vicinity of an aluminium smelter in Norway. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 160, 145–159.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-005-3862-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  296. Viswanathan, G., Jaswanth, A., Gopalakrishnan, S., Ilango, S. S., & Aditya, G. (2009). Determining the optimal fluoride concentration in drinking water for fluoride endemic regions in South India. Science of the Total Environment, 407, 5298–5307.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.06.028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  297. Vithanage, M., & Bhattacharya, P. (2015). Fluoride in the environment: Sources, distribution and defluoridation. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 13, 131–147.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-015-0496-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  298. Walna, B., Kurzyca, I., Bednorz, E., & Kolendowicz, L. (2013). Fluoride pollution of atmospheric precipitation and its relationship with air circulation and weather patterns (Wielkopolski National Park, Poland). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185, 5497–5514.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2962-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  299. Wang, W., Li, R., Tan, J., Luo, K., Yang, L., Li, H., et al. (2002). Adsorption and leaching of fluoride in soils of China. Fluoride, 35, 122–129.Google Scholar
  300. Wasson, R. J., Smith, G. I., & Agrawal, D. P. (1984). Late quaternary sediments, minerals, and inferred geochemical history of Didwana lake, Thar desert, India. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 46, 345–372.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(84)90006-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  301. Weinstein, L. H., & Davison, A. W. (2004). Fluorides in the environment. Cambridge: Cabi Publishing.Google Scholar
  302. Welch, S. A., Taunton, A. E., & Banfield, J. F. (2002). Effect of microorganisms and microbial metabolites on apatite dissolution. Geomicrobiology Journal, 19, 343–367.  https://doi.org/10.1080/01490450290098414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  303. World Bank. (2010). Deep wells and prudence: Towards pragmatic action for addressing groundwater overexploitation in India. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Washington, DC: The World Bank.Google Scholar
  304. World Health Organization (WHO). (1984). Fluorine and fluoride (Vol. 36). Geneva: Environmental Health Criteria.Google Scholar
  305. World Health Organization (WHO). (2002). Fluorides. Environmental Health Criteria 227. Geneva.Google Scholar
  306. Yadav, J. P., Lata, S., Kataria, S. K., & Kumar, S. (2009). Fluoride distribution in groundwater and survey of dental fluorosis among school children in the villages of the Jhajjar district of Haryana, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 31, 431–438.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-008-9196-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  307. Yasmin, S., Monterio, S., Ligimol, P. A., & D’Souza, D. (2011). Fluoride contamination and fluorosis in Gaya Region of Bihar, India. Current Biotica, 5, 232–236.Google Scholar
  308. Young, S. M., Pitawala, A., & Ishiga, H. (2011). Factors controlling fluoride contents of groundwater in north-central and north-western Sri Lanka. Environmental Earth Sciences, 63, 1333–1342.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-010-0804-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  309. Zhou, J., Wang, H., Cravotta, C. A., Dong, Q., & Xiang, X. (2016). Dissolution of fluorapatite by Pseudomonas fluorescens P35 resulting in fluorine release. Geomicrobiology Journal, 34, 421–433.  https://doi.org/10.1080/01490451.2016.1204376.Google Scholar
  310. Zingde, M. D., & Mandalia, A. V. (1988). Study of fluoride in polluted and unpolluted estuarine environments. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Science, 27, 707–712.  https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/os-V.19.385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  311. Zorina, S. Y., Pomazkina, L. V., Lavrentyeva, A. S., & Zasukhina, T. V. (2010). Effect of pollution with fluorides from aluminum production on the state of humus in different types of soil in the Baikal region. Contemporary Problems of Ecology, 3, 336–340.  https://doi.org/10.1134/S1995425510030136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2018

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Integrated Science Education and Research Centre (ISERC)Institute of Science, Visva-BharatiSantiniketan, BirbhumIndia

Personalised recommendations