Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Transformational Teaching: Theoretical Underpinnings, Basic Principles, and Core Methods

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Approaches to classroom instruction have evolved considerably over the past 50 years. This progress has been spurred by the development of several learning principles and methods of instruction, including active learning, student-centered learning, collaborative learning, experiential learning, and problem-based learning. In the present paper, we suggest that these seemingly different strategies share important underlying characteristics and can be viewed as complimentary components of a broader approach to classroom instruction called transformational teaching. Transformational teaching involves creating dynamic relationships between teachers, students, and a shared body of knowledge to promote student learning and personal growth. From this perspective, instructors are intellectual coaches who create teams of students who collaborate with each other and with their teacher to master bodies of information. Teachers assume the traditional role of facilitating students’ acquisition of key course concepts, but do so while enhancing students’ personal development and attitudes toward learning. They accomplish these goals by establishing a shared vision for a course, providing modeling and mastery experiences, challenging and encouraging students, personalizing attention and feedback, creating experiential lessons that transcend the boundaries of the classroom, and promoting ample opportunities for preflection and reflection. We propose that these methods are synergistically related and, when used together, maximize students’ potential for intellectual and personal growth.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amador, J. A., Miles, L., & Peters, C. B. (2006). The practice of problem-based learning: A guide to implementing PBL in the college classroom. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anding, J. M. (2005). An interview with Robert E. Quinn—Entering the fundamental state of leadership: Reflections on the path to transformational teaching. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4, 487–495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, T. M., Leonard, M. J., Colgrove, C. A., & Kalinowski, S. T. (2011). Active learning not associated with student learning in a random sample of college biology courses. CBE Life Sciences Education, 10, 394–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armbruster, P., Patel, M., Johnson, E., & Weiss, M. (2009). Active learning and student-centered pedagogy improve student attitudes and performance in introductory biology. CBE Life Sciences Education, 8, 203–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, N., Chang, S. M., & Brickman, M. (2007). Cooperative learning in industrial-sized biology classes. CBE Life Sciences Education, 6, 163–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson, E., & Patnoe, S. (1997). The jigsaw classroom: Building cooperation in the classroom (2nd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Teachers’ sense of efficacy, classroom behavior, and student achievement. In P. T. Ashton & R. B. Webb (Eds.), Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement (pp. 125–144). New York: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspin, D. N., Chapman, J., Evans, K., & Bagnall, R. (Eds.). (2012). Second international handbook of lifelong learning. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attali, Y., & Powers, D. (2010). Immediate feedback and opportunity to revise answers to open-ended questions. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70, 22–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (1995). Individual consideration viewed at multiple levels of analysis: A multi-level framework for examining the influence of transformational leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 6, 199–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, C. P., Minderhout, V., & Loertscher, J. (2012). Learning transferable skills in large lecture halls: Implementing a POGIL approach in biochemistry. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 40, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 117–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (2012a). On the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited. Journal of Management, 38, 9–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (2012b). Social cognitive theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 349–374). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 586–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., & Major, C. H. (2005). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barling, J., Christie, A., & Hoption, C. (2010). Leadership. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 183–240). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, T. (2010). The problem-based learning process as finding and being in flow. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 47, 165–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. In L. Wilkerson & W. H. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice (pp. 3–13). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barry, C. L., Jeanne Horst, S., Finney, S. J., Brown, A. R., & Kopp, J. P. (2010). Do examinees have similar test-taking effort? A high-stakes question for low-stakes testing. International Journal of Testing, 10, 342–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1990). The implications of transactional and transformational leadership for individual, team, organizational development. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 4, 231–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. M., & Bass, R. (2008). The Bass handbook of leadership: Theory, research, managerial applications. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2010). The transformational model of leadership. In G. Robinson Hickman (Ed.), Leading organizations: Perspectives for a new era (2nd ed., pp. 76–86). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2006). Experiential learning: A best practice handbook for trainers and educators (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beauchamp, M. R., Barling, J., Li, Z., Morton, K. L., Keith, S. E., & Zumbo, B. D. (2010). Development and psychometric properties of the transformational teaching questionnaire. Journal of Health Psychology, 15, 1123–1134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beauchamp, M. R., Barling, J., & Morton, K. L. (2011). Transformational teaching and adolescent self-determined motivation, self-efficacy, and intentions to engage in leisure time physical activity: A randomised controlled pilot trial. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3, 127–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beauchamp, M. R., & Morton, K. L. (2011). Transformational teaching and physical activity engagement among adolescents. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 39, 133–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (2002). Lecturing. In S. F. Davis & W. Buskist (Eds.), The teaching of psychology: Essays in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie and Charles L. Brewer (pp. 57–67). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berk, R. A. (2009). Multimedia teaching with video clips: TV, movies, YouTube, and mtvU in the college classroom. International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning, 5, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman, P., & McLaughlin, M. W. (1977). Federal programs supporting educational change. Vol. 7, Factors affecting implementation and continuation (R-1589/7-HEW). Santa Monica: Rand Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1996). The biopsychosocial model of arousal regulation. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 28, pp. 1–51). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boekaerts, M. (2002). Bringing about change in the classroom: Strengths and weaknesses of the self-regulated learning approach—EARLI Presidential Address, 2001. Learning and Instruction, 12, 589–604.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boud, D., & Feletti, G. I. (Eds.). (1997). The challenge of problem-based learning (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouffard-Bouchard, T. (1990). Influence of self-efficacy on performance in a cognitive task. Journal of Social Psychology, 130, 353–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouffard-Bouchard, T., Parent, S., & Larivée, S. (1991). Influence of self-efficacy on self-regulation and performance among junior and senior high-school age students. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 14, 153–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, G. H., & Gilligan, S. G. (1979). Remembering information related to one’s self. Journal of Research in Personality, 13, 420–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyatzis, R. E. (2006a). An overview of intentional change from a complexity perspective. Journal of Management Development, 25, 607–623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyatzis, R. E. (2006b). The ideal self as the driver of intentional change. Journal of Management Development, 25, 624–642.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyatzis, R. E. (2006c). Intentional change. Journal of Organizational Excellence, 25, 49–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyatzis, R. E. (2009). Creating sustainable, desired change in teams through the application of intentional change and complexity theories. In P. Doucherty, M. Kira, & A. B. Shani (Eds.), Creating sustainable work systems: Developing social sustainability (2nd ed., pp. 103–116). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyatzis, R. E., & Akrivou, K. (2006). The ideal self as the driver of intentional change. Journal of Management Development, 25, 624–642.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, B. L. (2009). Using a case study to develop the transformational teaching theory. Journal of Leadership Education, 7, 50–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandes, D., & Ginnis, P. (1986). A guide to student-centered learning. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self-efficacy beliefs of middle school students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 485–499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brock, S. E. (2010). Measuring the importance of precursor steps to transformative learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 60, 122–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. K. (2008). Student-centered instruction: Involving students in their own education. Music Educators Journal, 94, 30–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown Wright, G. (2011). Student-centered learning in higher education. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 23, 92–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruner, J. S., & Haste, H. (Eds.). (2010). Making sense: The child’s construction of the world. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buskist, W., & Davis, S. F. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of the teaching of psychology. Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, J. E. (2007). Clickers in the large classroom: Current research and best-practice tips. CBE Life Sciences Education, 6, 9–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cantor, J. A. (1995). Experiential learning in higher education: Linking classroom and community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caprara, G. V., Barbranelli, C., Steca, P., & Malone, P. S. (2006). Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs as determinants of job satisfaction and students’ academic achievement: A study at the school level. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 473–490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caprara, G. V., Vecchione, M., Alessandri, G., Gerbino, M., & Barbaranelli, C. (2011). The contribution of personality traits and self-efficacy beliefs to academic achievement: A longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 78–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrington, B., Tymms, P., & Merrell, C. (2008). Role models, school improvement and the ‘gender gap’—Do men bring out the best in boys and women the best in girls? British Educational Research Journal, 34, 315–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cioffi, D. (1991). Beyond attentional strategies: A cognitive-perceptual model of somatic interpretation. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 25–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clements, A. D. (1995). Experiential-learning activities in undergraduate developmental psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 115–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conciatore, J. (1990). From flunking to mastering calculus: Treisman’s retention model proves to be “too good” on some campuses. Black Issues in Higher Education, 6, 5–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, M. A. (1999). Classroom choices from a cognitive perspective on peer learning. In A. M. O’Donnell & A. King (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on peer learning (pp. 215–234). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cortright, R. N., Collins, H. L., & DiCarlo, S. E. (2005). Peer instruction enhanced meaningful learning: Ability to solve novel problems. Advances in Physiology Education, 29, 107–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cranton, P. (2006). Understanding and promoting transformative learning: A guide for educators of adults (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of Physics, 69, 970–977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlgren, D. J., Wille, D. E., Finkel, D. G., & Burger, T. (2005). Do active learning techniques enhance learning and increase persistence of first-year psychology students? Journal of The First-Year Experience & Students in Transition, 17, 49–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deslauriers, L., Schelew, E., & Wieman, C. (2011). Improved learning in a large-enrollment physics class. Science, 332, 862–864.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dirkx, J. M. (1998). Transformative learning theory in the practice of adult education: An overview. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 7, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Draper, S. W., & Brown, M. I. (2004). Increasing interactivity in lectures using an electronic voting system. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, 81–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E., & Allen, D. E. (Eds.). (2001). The power of problem-based learning. Sterling: Stylus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, D. K., & Arthurs, L. (2012). Improving student attitudes about learning science and student scientific reasoning skills. Astronomy Education Review, 11, 010102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C. S., & Master, A. (2009). Self-theories and motivation: Students’ beliefs about intelligence. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 123–140). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, D. M. (2007). A developmental re-forming of the phases of meaning in transformational learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 58, 61–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, C. (2004). Promoting student-centered learning in experiential education. Journal of Experiential Education, 27, 141–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fies, C., & Marshall, J. (2006). Classroom response systems: A review of the literature. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15, 101–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, N., Bowden, M., & Beard, J. (2011). Learning together: Using social media to foster collaboration in higher education. In L. A. Wankel & C. Wankel (Eds.), Higher education administration with social media (cutting-edge technologies in higher education, volume 2) (pp. 105–126). United Kingdom: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, S., O’Connor, E., Parks, J. W., Cunningham, M., Hurley, D., Haak, D., et al. (2007). Prescribed active learning increases performance in introductory biology. CBE Life Sciences Education, 6, 132–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Batey, M., & Martin, N. (2011). How would you like to be evaluated? The correlates of students’ preferences for assessment methods. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 259–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaskill, P. J., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2002). Self-efficacy and self-regulated learning: The dynamic duo in school performance. In J. Aronson & D. Cordova (Eds.), Improving education: Classic and contemporary lessons from psychology (pp. 183–206). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gasser, K. W. (2011). Five ideas for 21st century math classrooms. American Secondary Education, 39, 108–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 569–582.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giroux, H. (2010). Teachers as transformative intellectuals. In K. Ryan & J. M. Cooper (Eds.), Kaleidoscope: Contemporary and classic readings in education (pp. 35–40). Belmont: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gore, P. A., Jr. (2006). Academic self-efficacy as a predictor of college outcomes: Two incremental validity studies. Journal of Career Assessment, 14, 92–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross Davis, B. (2009). Tools for teaching (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haak, D. C., HilleRisLambers, J., Pitre, E., & Freeman, S. (2011). Increased structure and active learning reduce the achievement gap in introductory biology. Science, 332, 1213–1216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hannafin, M. J., Hill, J. R., & Land, S. M. (1997). Student-centered learning and interactive multimedia: Status, issues, and implications. Contemporary Education, 68, 94–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harcum, E. R., & Friedman, H. (1991). Students’ ethics ratings of demonstrations in introductory psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 18, 215–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, A. (2009). Student empowerment: Student-designed syllabus. In K. McKinney & B. S. Heyl (Eds.), Sociology through active learning: Student exercises (2nd ed., pp. 267–270). Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebb, M. R., Brewer, C. L., & Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (2000). Handbook for teaching introductory psychology (2nd ed.). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hermann, A. D., Foster, D. A., & Hardin, E. E. (2010). Does the first week of class matter? A quasi-experimental investigation of student satisfaction. Teaching of Psychology, 37, 79–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16, 235–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, B., & Ritchie, D. (1997). Using multimedia to overcome the problems with problem based learning. Instructional Science, 25, 97–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland, A. C., & Kensinger, E. A. (2010). Emotion and autobiographical memory. Physics of Life Reviews, 7, 88–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudd, S. S. (2003). Syllabus under construction: Involving students in the creation of class assignments. Teaching Sociology, 31, 195–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isbell, L. M., & Gilbert Cote, N. (2009). Connecting with struggling students to improve performance in large classes. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 185–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, A. N., Allison, S. B., & McKenzie, C. Z. (2011). Active lessons for active brains: Teaching boys and other experiential learners, grades 3–10. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, J. L., & Lawson, A. (2011). Effects of collaborative group composition and inquiry instruction on reasoning gains and achievement in undergraduate biology. CBE Life Sciences Education, 10, 64–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1974). Instructional goal structure: Cooperative competitive or individualistic. Review of Education Research, 44, 213–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (2006). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom (8th ed.). Edina: Interaction Book Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kapitanoff, S. H. (2009). Collaborative testing: Cognitive and interpersonal processes related to enhanced test performance. Active Learning in Higher Education, 10, 56–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karpiak, C. P. (2011). Assessment of problem-based learning in the undergraduate statistics course. Teaching of Psychology, 38, 251–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kassam, K. S., Koslov, K., & Mendes, W. B. (2009). Decisions under distress: Stress profiles influence anchoring and adjustment. Psychological Science, 20, 1394–1399.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufer, D., Gunawardena, A., Tan, A., & Cheek, A. (2011). Bringing social media to the writing classroom: Classroom salon. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 25, 299–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kayes, A. B., Kayes, D. C., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Experiential learning in teams. Simulation and Gaming, 36, 330–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keaton, S. A., & Bodie, G. D. (2011). Explaining social constructivism. Communication Teacher, 25, 192–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilic, A. (2010). Learner-centered micro teaching in teacher education. International Journal of Instruction, 3, 77–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R. M. (2004). A cross-cultural investigation of the efficacy beliefs of South Asian immigrant and Anglo Canadian nonimmigrant early adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 731–742.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R. M. (2010). Teacher stress: The mediating role of collective efficacy beliefs. The Journal of Educational Research, 103, 342–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R. M., & Chiu, M. M. (2010). Effects on teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction: Teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 741–756.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R. M., Tze, V. M. C., Betts, S. M., & Gordon, K. A. (2011). Teacher efficacy research 1998–2009: Signs of progress or unfulfilled promise? Educational Psychology Review, 23, 21–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight, J. K., & Wood, W. B. (2005). Teaching more by lecturing less. Cell Biology Education, 4, 298–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of group process. London: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4, 193–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2009). The learning way: Meta-cognitive aspects of experiential learning. Simulation and Gaming, 40, 297–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. H., & Whitt, E. J. (2010). Student success in college: Creating conditions that matter. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, J.-T., & Holling, H. (2009). Gender, reasoning ability, and scholastic achievement: A multilevel mediation analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 229–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lammers, W. J., & Murphy, J. J. (2002). A profile of teaching techniques used in the university classroom. Active Learning in Higher Education, 3, 54–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lasry, N., Mazur, E., & Watkins, J. (2008). Peer instruction: From Harvard to the two-year college. American Journal of Physics, 76, 1066–1069.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebens, M., Graff, M., & Mayer, P. (2011). The affective dimensions of mathematical difficulties in schoolchildren. Education Research International, 2011, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, J. S., & Harrison, M. A. (2012). Online delivery as a course adjunct promotes active learning and student success. Teaching of Psychology, 39, 72–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loo, R. (2004). Kolb’s learning styles and learning preferences: Is there a linkage? Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 24, 99–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, T. R. (1997). A comparison between traditional and constructivist teaching in college biology. Innovative Higher Education, 21, 197–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loyens, S. M. M., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2008). Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning. Educational Psychology Review, 20, 411–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacGregor Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., & Martin, A. J. (2011). Academic self-concept and academic achievement: Relations and causal ordering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 59–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maskit, D. (2011). Teachers’ attitudes toward pedagogical changes during various stages of professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 851–860.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maudsley, G., & Strivens, J. (2000). Promoting professional knowledge, experiential learning and critical thinking for medical students. Medical Education, 34, 535–544.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maurer, T. J., Lippstreu, M., & Judge, T. A. (2008). Structural model of employee involvement in skill development activity: The role of individual differences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72, 336–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazur, E. (2009). Farewell, lecture? Science, 323, 50–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinney, D., Dyck, J. L., & Luber, E. S. (2009). iTunes University and the classroom: Can podcasts replace professors? Computers & Education, 52, 617–623.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKown, C., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). Teacher expectations, classroom context, and the achievement gap. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 235–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • McManus, D. A. (2005). Leaving the lectern: Cooperative learning and the critical first days of students working in groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mercer, S., & Ryan, S. (2010). A mindset for EFL: Learners’ beliefs about the role of natural talent. ELT Journal, 64, 436–444.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyers, C., & Jones, T. B. (1993). Promoting active learning: Strategies for the college classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezirow, J. (1978). Education for perspective transformation: Women’s re-entry programs in community college. New York: Center for Adult Education, Teachers College, Columbia University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezirow, J. (1994). Understanding transformation theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 44, 222–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezirow, J. (1995). Transformative theory of adult learning. In M. R. Welton (Ed.), In defense of the lifeworld: Critical perspectives on adult learning (pp. 39–70). Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezirow, J. (1996). Contemporary paradigms of learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 46, 158–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. In P. Cranton (Ed.), Transformative learning in action: Insights from practice. New directions for adult and continuing education, no. 74 (pp. 5–12). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezirow, J. (1998). On critical reflection. Adult Education Quarterly, 48, 185–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michael, J. (2006). Where’s the evidence that active learning works? Advances in Physiology Education, 30, 159–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miettinen, R. (2000). The concept of experiential learning and John Dewey’s theory of reflective thought and action. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19, 54–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millis, B. J. (Ed.). (2010). Cooperative learning in higher education: Across the disciplines, across the academy. Sterling: Stylus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moeller, T. G. (1985). Using classroom debates in teaching developmental psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 207–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moon, J. A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, K. L., Keith, S. E., & Beauchamp, M. R. (2010). Transformational teaching and physical activity: A new paradigm for adolescent health promotion? Journal of Health Psychology, 15, 248–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moskovitz, C., & Kellogg, D. (2011). Inquiry-based writing in the laboratory course. Science, 332, 919–920.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nodine, B. F., Ernst, R. M., Broeker, C. B., & Benjamin, L. T. (Eds.). (1999). Activities handbook for teaching psychology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norman, G. R., & Schmidt, H. G. (2000). Effectiveness of problem-based learning curricula: Theory, practice and paper darts. Medical Education, 34, 721–728.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Donnell, A. M. (2006). The role of peers and group learning. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 781–802). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Donnell, A. M., Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & Erkens, G. (Eds.). (2006). Collaborative learning, reasoning, and technology. Mahway: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Donovan, A., Hughes, B. M., Slavich, G. M., Lynch, L., Cronin, M. T., O’Farrelly, C., et al. (2010). Clinical anxiety, cortisol, and interleukin-6: Evidence for specificity in emotion–biology relationships. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 24, 1074–1077.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill, G., & McMahon, T. (2005). Student-centered learning: What does it mean for students and lecturers? In G. O’Neill, S. Moore, & B. McMullin (Eds.), Emerging issues in the practice of university learning and teaching. Dublin: All Ireland Society for Higher Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, J. (2010). Arguing to learn in science: The role of collaborative, critical discourse. Science, 328, 463–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66, 543–578.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R. (2011). Emotions as drivers of learning and cognitive development. In R. A. Calvo & S. K. D’Mello (Eds.), New perspectives on affect and learning technologies: Explorations in the learning sciences, instructional systems and performance technologies (pp. 23–39). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2006). Achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: A theoretical model and prospective test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 583–597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2009). Achievement goals and achievement emotions: Testing a model of their joint relations with academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 115–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pekrun, R., Frenzel, A., Goetz, T., & Perry, R. P. (2007). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: An integrative approach to emotions in education. In P. A. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 13–36). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, organizational citizenship behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preszler, R. W. (2009). Replacing lecture with peer-led workshops improves student learning. CBE Life Sciences Education, 8, 182–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, L. (2004). Individual differences in learning: Cognitive control, cognitive style, and learning style. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 24, 681–698.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93, 223–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pritchard, A., & Woollard, J. (2010). Psychology for the classroom: Constructivism and social learning. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rafferty, A. E., & Griffin, M. A. (2004). Dimensions of transformational leadership: Conceptual and empirical extensions. The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 329–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinig, B. A., Horowitz, I., & Whittenburg, G. E. (2011). The effects of team-based learning on student attitudes and satisfaction. Decisions Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 9, 27–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, D. (2008). Don’t dump the didactic lecture; fix it. Advances in Physiology Education, 32, 23–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richmond, A. S., & Kindelberger Hagan, L. (2011). Promoting higher level thinking in psychology: Is active learning the answer? Teaching of Psychology, 38, 102–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, P., & Alvy, H. B. (2004). The new principal’s fieldbook: Strategies for success. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosebrough, T. R., & Leverett, R. G. (2011). Transformational teaching in the information age: Making why and how we teach relevant to students. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectations and pupils’ intellectual development. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, J., A. (1994, June). Beliefs that make a difference: The origins and impacts of teacher efficacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies.

  • Rubie-Davies, C. M. (2006). Teacher expectations and student self-perceptions: Exploring relationships. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 537–552.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubie-Davies, C. M. (2010). Teacher expectations and perceptions of student attributes: Is there a relationship? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 121–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saklofske, D. H., Michayluk, J. O., & Randhawa, B. S. (1988). Teachers’ efficacy and teaching behaviors. Psychological Reports, 63, 407–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saville, B. K., Zinn, T. E., Neef, N. A., Van Norman, R., & Ferreri, S. J. (2006). A comparison of interteaching and lecture in the college classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 49–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. G. (1983). Problem-based learning rationale and description. Medical Education, 17, 11–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H., & Hanson, A. R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children’s self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 313–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H., & Mullen, C. A. (2012). Self-efficacy as an engaged learner. In S. J. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 219–235). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–54). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H., & Rice, J. M. (1986). Extended attributional feedback: Sequence effects during remedial reading instruction. Journal of Early Adolescence, 6, 55–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seery, M. D. (2011). Challenge or threat? Cardiovascular indexes of resilience and vulnerability to potential stress in humans. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1603–1610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaughnessy, M. F. (2004). An interview with Anita Woolfolk: The educational psychology of teacher efficacy. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 153–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shellenbarger, T., Palmer, E. A., Labant, A. L., & Kuzneski, J. L. (2005). Use of faculty reflection to improve teaching. In M. H. Oermann & K. T. Heinrich (Eds.), Annual review of nursing education volume 3, 2005: Strategies for teaching, assessment, and program planning. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2010). Teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of relations. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 1059–1069.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skott, B. P., & Ward, M. (Eds.). (2012). Active learning exercises for research methods in social science. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavich, G., M. (2005, October). Transformational teaching. E-xcellence in Teaching, Volume 5. Retrieved from http://www.teachpsych.org/ebooks/eit2005/eit05-11.html.

  • Slavich, G. M. (2006a). Transformational teaching. In T. Zinn, B. Saville, & J. Williams (Eds.), Essays from e-xcellence in teaching: 2005 (Vol. 5). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavich, G. M. (2006b). On becoming a teacher of psychology. In J. G. Irons, B. C. Beins, C. Burke, B. Buskist, V. Hevern, & J. E. Williams (Eds.), The teaching of psychology in autobiography: Perspectives from exemplary psychology teachers (pp. 92–99). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavich, G. M. (2009). On 50 years of giving psychology away: An interview with Philip Zimbardo. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 278–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavich, G. M., O’Donovan, A., Epel, E. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2010). Black sheep get the blues: A psychobiological model of social rejection and depression. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 39–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavich, G. M., Way, B. M., Eisenberger, N. I., & Taylor, S. E. (2010). Neural sensitivity to social rejection is associated with inflammatory responses to social stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 14817–14822.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavin, R. E. (1977). Classroom reward structure: An analytical and practical review. Review of Educational Research, 47, 633–650.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavin, R. E., Madden, N. E., Chambers, B., & Haxby, B. (2009). Two million children: Success for all. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. K., Wood, W. B., Adams, W. K., Wieman, C., Knight, J. K., Guild, N., et al. (2009). Why peer discussion improves student performance on in-class concept questions. Science, 323, 122–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stajkovic, A. D., Lee, D., & Nyberg, A. J. (2009). Collective efficacy, group potency, and group performance: Meta-analyses of their relationships, and test of a mediation model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 814–828.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark, G. (2006). Stop “going over” exams! The multiple benefits of team exams. Journal of Management Education, 30, 818–827.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stockdale, S. L., & Williams, R. L. (2004). Cooperative learning groups at the college level: Differential effects on high, average, and low exam performers. Journal of Behavioral Education, 13, 37–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, S. S., & Glanz, J. G. (2009). Supervision that improves teaching and learning: Strategies and techniques (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Svinicki, M. D. (2007). Moving beyond “it worked”: The ongoing evolution of research on problem-based learning in medical education. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 49–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Svinivki, M., & McKeachie, W. J. (2011). McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (Thirteenthth ed.). Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, X., Coffey, J. E., Elby, A., & Levin, D. M. (2010). The scientific method and scientific inquiry: Tensions in teaching and learning. Science Education, 94, 29–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tärnvik, A. (2007). Revival of the case method: A way to retain student-centered learning in a post-PBL era. Medical Teacher, 29, 32–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tauber, R. T. (1997). Self-fulfilling prophecy: A practical guide to its use in education. Westport: Praeger Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, E. W. (2007). An update of transformative learning theory: A critical review of the empirical research (1999-2005). International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26, 173–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, C. P., Skowronski, J. J., Larsen, S. F., & Betz, A. L. (1998). Autobiographical memory: Remembering what and remembering when. Hillside: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, U. (1992). Studying students studying calculus: A look at the lives of minority mathematics students in college. The College Mathematics Journal, 23, 362–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783–805.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M. (2009). Generational changes and their impact in the classroom: Teaching Generation Me. Medical Education, 43, 398–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ueckert, C., Adams, A., & Lock, J. (2011). Redesigning a large-enrollment introductory biology course. CBE Life Sciences Education, 10, 164–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sluijsmans, D. M. A. (2008). Toward a synthesis of cognitive load theory, four-component instructional design, and self-directed learning. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 55–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • VanderStoep, S. W., Fagerlin, A., & Feenstra, J. S. (2000). What do student remember from introductory psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 89–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language, revised edition. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ware, M. E., & Johnson, D. E. (2000). Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology (2nd ed.). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ware, H. W., & Kitsantasa, A. (2011). Predicting teacher commitment using principal and teacher efficacy variables: An HLM approach. The Journal of Educational Research, 104, 183–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, N. M. (2009). The teacher’s role in promoting collaborative dialogue in the classroom. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 1–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westmacott, R., Black, S. E., Freedman, M., & Moscovitch, M. (2003). The contribution of autobiographical significance to semantic memory: Evidence from Alzheimer’s disease, semantic dementia, and amnesia. Neuropsychologia, 42, 25–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J. H., & Wilson, S. B. (2007). The first day of class affects student motivation: An experimental study. Teaching of Psychology, 34, 226–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolters, C. A., & Taylor, D. J. (2012). A self-regulated learning perspective on student engagement. In S. J. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 635–651). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, E. J. (1989). Makin lectures more exciting. Biomedical Education, 17, 9–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Davis, H. A. (2006). Teacher self-efficacy and its influence on the achievement of adolescents. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 117–138). Greenwich: Information Age Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoder, J. D., & Hochevar, C. M. (2005). Encouraging active learning can improve students’ performance on examinations. Teaching of Psychology, 32, 91–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, M. R. (2005). The motivational effects of the classroom environment in facilitating self-regulated learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 27, 25–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L. F., Sternberg, R. J., & Rayner, S. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of intellectual styles: Preferences in cognition, learning, and thinking. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimbardo, P. G. (2005). Optimizing the power and magic of teaching. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24, 11–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimbardo, P. G., Butler, L. D., & Wolfe, V. A. (2003). Cooperative college examinations: More gain, less pain when students share information and grades. The Journal of Experimental Education, 71, 101–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Preparation of this review was supported by a Society in Science: Branco Weiss Fellowship and by a Society for the Teaching of Psychology Instructional Resource Award to George M. Slavich. We thank Keely Muscatell and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on a previous version of this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, UCLA Medical Plaza 300, Room 3156, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-7076, USA

    George M. Slavich

  2. Department of Psychology, Stanford University, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305-2130, USA

    Philip G. Zimbardo

Authors
  1. George M. Slavich
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Philip G. Zimbardo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to George M. Slavich.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Slavich, G.M., Zimbardo, P.G. Transformational Teaching: Theoretical Underpinnings, Basic Principles, and Core Methods. Educ Psychol Rev 24, 569–608 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-012-9199-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-012-9199-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation