Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evidence for competition at sea between Norton Sound chum salmon and Asian hatchery chum salmon

  • Published:
Environmental Biology of Fishes Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Increasing production of hatchery salmon over the past four decades has led to concerns about possible density-dependent effects on wild Pacific salmon populations in the North Pacific Ocean. The concern arises because salmon from distant regions overlap in the ocean, and wild salmon populations having low productivity may compete for food with abundant hatchery populations. We tested the hypothesis that adult length-at-age, age-at-maturation, productivity, and abundance of a Norton Sound, Alaska, chum salmon population were influenced by Asian hatchery chum salmon, which have become exceptionally abundant and surpassed the abundance of wild chum salmon in the North Pacific beginning in the early 1980s. We found that smaller adult length-at-age, delayed age-at-maturation, and reduced productivity and abundance of the Norton Sound salmon population were associated with greater production of Asian hatchery chum salmon since 1965. Modeling of the density-dependent relationship, while controlling for other influential variables, indicated that an increase in adult hatchery chum salmon abundance from 10 million to 80 million adult fish led to a 72% reduction in the abundance of the wild chum salmon population. These findings indicate that competition with hatchery chum salmon contributed to the low productivity and abundance of Norton Sound chum salmon, which includes several stocks that are classified as Stocks of Concern by the State of Alaska. This study provides new evidence indicating that large-scale hatchery production may influence body size, age-at-maturation, productivity and abundance of a distant wild salmon population.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim Sustainable Salmon Initiative (AYK SSI) (2006) Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim Salmon Research and Restoration Plan. Bering Sea Fishermen’s Association, 110 West 15th, Anchorage, AK. Available: www.aykssi.org/Home.htm (June 2010).

  • Banducci A, Kohler T, Soong J, Menard J (2007) 2005 annual management report Norton Sound, Port Clarence, and Kotzebue. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fishery Management Report No. 07–32, Anchorage, AK.

  • Beacham TD, Candy JR, Sato S, Urawa S, Le KD, Wetklo M (2009) Stock origins of chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) in the Gulf of Alaska during winter as estimated with microsatellites. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 5:15–23. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (June 2010).

    Google Scholar 

  • Beamish RJ, Mahnken C, Neville CM (1997) Hatchery and wild production of Pacific salmon in relation to large-scale, natural shifts in the productivity of the marine environment. ICES J Mar Sci 54:1200–1215

    Google Scholar 

  • Brannian LK, Evenson MJ, Hilsinger JR (2006) Escapement goal recommendations for select Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim region salmon stocks, 2007. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fishery Manuscript No. 06–07, Anchorage, AK (with 2-15-2007 revision). Available: www.sf.adfg.state.ak.us/FedAidPDFs/fm06-07.pdf (June 2010).

  • Bugaev VF, Welch DW, Selifonov MM, Grachev LE, Eveson JP (2001) Influence of the marine abundance of pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and sockeye salmon (O. nerka) on growth of Ozernaya River sockeye. Fish Oceanogr 10:26–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnham KP, Anderson DR (1998) Model selection and inference: a practical information–theoretic approach. Springer, New York, 353

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooney RT, Brodeur RD (1998) Carrying capacity and North Pacific salmon production: stock enhancement implications. Bull Mar Sci 62:443–464

    Google Scholar 

  • deReynier YL (1998) Evolving principles of international fisheries law and the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission. Ocean Dev Int Law 29:147–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudet DM, Schaefer G (1982) Migrations of salmon in Norton Sound, Alaska determined by tagging in 1978–1979. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Informational Leaflet no. 198. Anchorage, AK.

  • Good TP, Waples RS, Adams P (eds.) (2005) Updated status of federally listed ESUs of West Coast salmon and steelhead. U.S. Dept. Commerce NOAA Technical Memorandum. NMFS-NWFSC-66, 598 p. Available: www.nwr.noaa.gov/Publications/Biological-Status-Reviews/Salmon.cfm (June 2010).

  • Hardin G (1968) The tragedy of the commons. Science 162:1243–1248

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hare SR, Mantua NJ (2000) Empirical evidence for North Pacific regime shifts in 1977 and 1989. Prog Oceanogr 47:103–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helle JH, Martinson EC, Eggers DM, Gritsenko O (2007) Influence of salmon abundance and ocean conditions on body size of Pacific salmon. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 4:289–298. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (September 2009).

  • Hilborn R, Eggers D (2000) A review of the hatchery programs for pink salmon in Prince William Sound and Kodiak Island, Alaska. Trans Am Fish Soc 129:333–350

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilborn R, Walters CJ (1992) Quantitative fisheries stock assessment: choice, dynamics and uncertainty. Chapman and Hall, New York, p 570

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hilborn R, Lessard R, Goodman D, Bue B, Adkison M, Stanford J, Whited D, Knudsen E (2007) Alternative methods for setting escapement goals in AYK. Prepared for the Arctic Yukon Kuskokwim Sustainable Salmon Initiative, Anchorage, AK. Available: www.aykssi.org/docs/Project_Docs/Final_Reports/120.pdf (January 2011).

  • Holt CA, Rutherford MB, Peterman RM (2008) International cooperation among nation-states of the North Pacific Ocean on the problem of competition among salmon for a common pool of prey resources. Mar Pol 32:607–617

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishida Y, Ito S, Kaeriyama M, McKinnell S, Nagasawa K (1993) Resent changes in age and size of chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) in the North Pacific Ocean and possible causes. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 50:290–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaeriyama M (1998) Dynamics of chum salmon, Oncorhynchus keta, populations released from Hokkaido, Japan. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 1:90–102. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (September 2009).

  • Kaeriyama M, Edpalina RR (2004) Evaluation of the biological interaction between wild and hatchery population for sustainable fisheries management of Pacific Salmon. In: Leber KM, Kitada S, Blankenship HL, Svasand T (eds) Stock enhancement and sea ranching: developments, pitfalls and opportunities. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford, pp 247–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaeriyama M, Yatsu A, Noto M, Saitoh S (2007) Spatial and temporal changes in the growth patterns and survival of Hokkaido chum salmon populations in 1970–2001. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 4:251–256. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html. (September 2009).

  • Kaeriyama M, Seo H, Kudo H (2009) Trends in the run size and carrying capacity of Pacific salmon in the North Pacific Ocean. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 5:293–302. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (September 2009).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent S (2007) Salmonid escapements at Kwiniuk, Niukluk and Nome Rivers, 2006. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fishery Data Series No. 07–09, Anchorage, AK.

  • Khrustaleva AM, Leman VN (2007) Interannual variation of linear-weight indices, age structure, and rate of growth of chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta and factors affecting it (the Bol’shaya River basin, western Kamchatka). J Ichthyol 47:385–393

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klovatch N (2000) Tissue degeneration in chum salmon and carrying capacity of the North Pacific Ocean. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 2:83–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Krueger CC, Zimmerman CE (2009) Pacific salmon: ecology and management of western Alaska’s populations. American Fisheries Society, Symposium 70, Bethesda, Maryland.

  • Kruse GH (1998) Salmon run failures in 1997–1998: a link to anomalous ocean conditions? Alaska Fishery Research Bulletin 5:55–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Kutner MH, Nachtsheim CJ, Neter J, Li W (2005) Applied Linear Statistical Models, 5th edn. McGraw-Hill Irwin, New York, p 1396

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen WA, McCleary SJ (1972) The use of partial residual plots in regression analysis. Technometrics 14:781–790

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin PS, Zabel RW, Williams JG (2001) The road to extinction is paved with good intentions: negative association of fish hatcheries with threatened salmon. Proc R Soc Lond B 268:1153–1159

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mantua NJ, Taylor NG, Ruggerone GT, Myers KW, Preikshot D, Augerot X, Davis ND, Dorner B, Hilborn R, Peterman RM, Rand P, Schindler D, Stanford J, Walker RV, Walters CJ (2009) The salmon MALBEC project: a North Pacific-scale study to support salmon conservation planning. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 5:333–354. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (September 2009).

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinnell S (1995) Age-specific effects of sockeye abundance on adult body size of selected British Columbia sockeye stocks. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 52:1050–1063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menard J, Bergstrom DJ (2009) Norton Sound subdistrict 2 (Golovin) and subdistrict 3 (Moses Point) chum salmon stock status and action plan, 2010; a report to the Alaska Board of Fisheries. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Special Publication No. 09–19, Anchorage, AK. Available: www.cf.adfg.state.ak.us/region3/nomehome.php (June 2010).

  • Menard J, Krueger CC, Hilsinger JR (2009) Norton Sound salmon fisheries: history, stock abundance, and management. Am Fish Soc Symp 70:621–673

    Google Scholar 

  • Morita K, Saito T, Miyakoshi Y, Fukuwaka M, Nagasawa T, Kaeriyama M (2006a) A review of Pacific salmon hatchery programmes on Hokkaido Island, Japan. ICES J Mar Sci 63:1353–1363

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morita K, Morita SH, Fukuwaka M, Nagasawa T (2006b) Cyclic population dynamics of pink salmon in the Bering Sea. 7th International Congress on the Biology of Fish. St Johns, Newfoundland, Canada.

  • Mueter FJ, Ware DM, Peterman RM (2002a) Spatial correlation patterns in coastal environmental variables and survival rates of salmon in the north-east Pacific Ocean. Fish Oceanogr 11:205–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mueter FJ, Peterman RM, Pyper BJ (2002b) Opposite effects of ocean temperature on survival rates of 120 stocks of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) in northern and southern areas. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 59:456–463 plus the erratum printed in Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60:757.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers KW, Walker RV, Davis ND, Armstrong JL (2004) Diet Overlap and competition between Yukon River chum salmon and hatchery salmon in the Gulf of Alaska in summer. Final Report to the Yukon River Drainage Fisheries Association. SAFS-UW-0407. School of Aquatic and Fisheries Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle.

  • Myers KW, Klovach NV, Gritsenko OF, Urawa S, Royer TC (2007) Stock-specific distributions of Asian and North American salmon in the open ocean, interannual changes, and oceanographic conditions. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 4:159–177. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (September 2009).

  • Myers KW, Walker RV, Davis ND, Armstrong JL, Kaeriyama M (2009) High seas distribution, biology, and ecology of Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim salmon: direct information from high seas tagging experiments, 1954–2006. Am Fish Soc Symp 70:201–239

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterman RM (1982) Nonlinear relation between smolts and adults in Babine Lake sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and implications for other salmon populations. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 39:904–913

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterman RM (1984a) Density-dependent growth in early ocean life of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 41:1825–1829

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterman RM (1984b) Effects of Gulf of Alaska sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) abundance on survival, body size, growth rate, and age at maturity of British Columbia and Bristol Bay, Alaska sockeye populations. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1302, Ottawa.

  • Peterman RM (1991) Density-dependent marine processes in North Pacific salmonids: Lessons for experimental design of large-scale manipulations of fish stocks. ICES Mar Sci Symp 192:69–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterman RM, Pyper BJ, Lapointe MF, Adkison MD, Walters CJ (1998) Patterns of covariation in survival rates of British Columbian and Alaskan sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) stocks. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 55:2503–2517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyper BJ, Peterman RM (1999) Relationship among adult body length, abundance, and ocean temperature for British Columbia and Alaska sockeye salmon, 1967–1997. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 56:1716–1720

    Google Scholar 

  • Radchenko VI, Temnykh OS, Lapko VV (2007) Trends in abundance and biological characteristics of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) in the North Pacific Ocean. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 4:7–21. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (June 2010).

    Google Scholar 

  • R Development Core Team (2010) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria. Available: www.R-project.org (January 2011).

  • Rogers DE (1980) Density-dependent growth of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon. In: McNeil WJ, Himsworth DC (eds) Salmonid ecosystems of the North Pacific. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, pp 267–283

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers DE, Ruggerone GT (1993) Factors affecting the marine growth of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon. Fish Res 18:89–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruggerone GT, Agler BA (2008) Retrospective analysis of AYK chum and coho salmon. Prepared for the Arctic Yukon Kuskokwim Sustainable Salmon Initiative, Anchorage, AK. Available: http://www.aykssi.org/Research/project_profile.cfm?project_id=124 (January 2011).

  • Ruggerone GT, Nielsen JL (2004) Evidence for competitive dominance of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) over other salmonids in the North Pacific Ocean. Rev Fish Biol Fish 14:371–390

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruggerone GT, Nielsen JL (2009) A review of growth and survival of salmon at sea in response to competition and climate change. Am Fish Soc Symp 70:241–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruggerone GT, Zimmermann M, Myers KW, Nielsen JL, Rogers DE (2003) Competition between Asian pink salmon and Alaskan sockeye salmon in the North Pacific Ocean. Fish Oceanogr 3:209–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruggerone GT, Farley E, Nielsen J, Hagen P (2005) Seasonal marine growth of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in relation to competition with Asian pink salmon (O. gorbuscha) and the 1977 ocean regime shift. Fish Bull 103:355–370

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruggerone GT, Nielsen JL, Bumgarner J (2007) Linkages between Alaskan sockeye salmon abundance, growth at sea, and climate, 1955–2002. Deep-Sea Res II 54:2776–2793

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruggerone GT, Peterman RM, Dorner B, Myers KW (2010) Magnitude and trends in abundance of hatchery and wild pink, chum, and sockeye salmon in the North Pacific Ocean. Marine and Coastal Fisheries: Dynamics, Management, and Ecosystem Science. In press.

  • Tadokoro K, Ishida Y, Davis ND, Ueyanagi S, Sugimoto T (1996) Change in chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) stomach contents associated with fluctuations of pink salmon (O. gorbuscha) abundance in the central subarctic Pacific and Bering Sea. Fish Oceanogr 5:89–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toge K, Yamashita R, Kazama K, Fukuwaka M, Yamamura O, Watanuki Y (2011) The relationship between pink salmon biomass and the body condition of shorttailed shearwaters in the Bering Sea: can fish compete with seabirds? Proc Roy Soc. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2345

    Google Scholar 

  • Urawa S, Sato S, Crane PA, Agler B, Josephson R, Azumaya T (2009) Stock-specific ocean distribution and migration of chum salmon in the Bering Sea and North Pacific Ocean. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 5:131–146. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (June 2010).

  • Volk EC, Evenson MJ, Clark RH (2009) Escapement goal recommendations for select Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim region salmon stocks, 2010. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fishery Manuscript No. 09–07, Anchorage, AK. Available: www.sf.adfg.state.ak.us/FedAidpdfs/FMS09-07.pdf (June 2010).

  • Wolfe RJ, Spaeder J (2009) People and salmon of the Yukon and Kuskokwim drainages and Norton Sound in Alaska: fishery harvests, culture change, and local knowledge systems. Am Fish Soc Symp 70:349–379

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodruff SD, Diaz HF, Elms JD, Worley SJ (1998) COADS release 2 data and metadata enhancements for improvements of marine surface flux fields. Phys Chem Earth 23:517–527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaporozhets OM, Zaporozhets GV (2004) Interaction between hatchery and wild Pacific salmon in the Far East of Russia: a review. Rev Fish Biol Fish 14:305–319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zavolokin AV, Zavolokina EA, Khokhlov YN (2009) Changes in size and growth of Anadyr chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) from 1962–2007. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 5:157–163. Available: www.npafc.org/new/pub_bulletin.html (June 2010).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The manuscript was prepared in part under award NA16FP2993 from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, administered by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. This investigation was funded by the Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim Sustainable Salmon Initiative. We thank ADF&G biologists, especially H. Hamazaki, S. Kent, J. Menard and G. Todd, who provided access to reports and data. We also appreciate efforts to gather, measure, and catalog scales by D. Folletti, M. Lovejoy, W. Rosky, and W. Whelan. Constructive comments on the manuscript were provided by E. Volk, M. Webster, and two anonymous reviewers. Use of any trade names or products is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement of the U.S. Government. The statements, findings, conclusions, and recommendations are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. Department of Commerce, or the Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Natural Resources Consultants, Inc., 4039 21st Avenue West, Suite 404, Seattle, WA, 98199, USA

    Gregory T. Ruggerone

  2. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial Fisheries, Mark, Tag, and Age Lab, 10107 Bentwood Place, Juneau, AK, 99801, USA

    Beverly A. Agler

  3. The Evergreen State College, 2700 Evergreen Parkway NW, Olympia, WA, 98505, USA

    Jennifer L. Nielsen

Authors
  1. Gregory T. Ruggerone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Beverly A. Agler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jennifer L. Nielsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gregory T. Ruggerone.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ruggerone, G.T., Agler, B.A. & Nielsen, J.L. Evidence for competition at sea between Norton Sound chum salmon and Asian hatchery chum salmon. Environ Biol Fish 94, 149–163 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-011-9856-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-011-9856-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation