Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression in Children: An Idiographic, Longitudinal Examination of Inferential Styles

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study examined the applicability of the hopelessness theory in children in the third grade. Participants included 206 students (111 boys and 95 girls) whose average age was 8.47 (SD = 0.56) years. Participants completed self-report measures assessing inferential styles at baseline, and negative events and depressive symptoms six times over a 7 weeks period. Results showed that depressogenic inferential styles concerning the self interacted with negative events to predict depressive symptoms during the follow-up, and that depressogenic inferential style for causes did not. These findings are believed to help resolve past controversy concerning inferential styles by suggesting that depressogenic inferential styles predict depressive symptoms even at a young age. Methodological and clinical implications from the present study are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In addition to an idiographic approach to conceptualizing negative events a nomothetic (between subject) approach was also examined for all analyses in the present study. The difference between these two approaches is that a nomothetic approach utilizes either raw or group-mean centered scores to operationalize negative events. Past studies on youth have also utilized a nomothetic approach when testing the vulnerability stress component of the hopelessness theory (e.g. Gibb and Alloy 2006). For the present study, all vulnerability stress hypotheses were non-significant when utilizing a nomothetic approach (p > 0.05). Support for an idiographic, as opposed to nomothetic, approach found in the present study is consistent with a large corpus of literature specific to hopelessness theory (see Abela and McGirr 2007) and vulnerability stress theories in general (see Abela and Hankin 2008 for further discussion).

  2. We should note that the pattern of results reported below was identical to that obtained when the analyses were limited to participants with complete data.

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z. (2001). The hopelessness theory of depression: A test of the diathesis–stress and causal mediation components in third and seventh grade children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 241–254.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z. (2002). Depressive mood reactions to failure in the achievement domain: A test of the integration of the hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 531–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Aydin, C., & Auerbach, R. P. (2006a). Operationalizing the ‘vulnerability’ and ‘stress’ components of the hopelessness theory of depression: A multi-wave longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1565–1583.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2008). Depression in children and adolescents: Causes, treatment, and prevention. In J. R. Z. Abela & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent depression (pp. 3–5). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & McGirr, A. (2007). Operationalizing cognitive vulnerability and stress from the perspective of the hopelessness theory: A multi-wave longitudinal study of children of affectively ill parents. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 377–395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., McGirr, A., & Skitch, S. A. (2007). Depressogenic inferential styles, negative events, and depressive symptoms in youth: An attempt to reconcile past inconsistent findings. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2397–2406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Parkinson, C., Stolow, D., & Starrs, C. (2009). A test of the integration of the hopelessness and response styles theories of depression in middle adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 354–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Payne, A. V. (2003). A test of the integration of the hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression in schoolchildren. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 519–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Sarin, S. (2002). Cognitive vulnerability to hopelessness depression: A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 811–829.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Scheffler, P. (2008). Conceptualizing cognitive vulnerability to depression in youth: A comparison of the Weakest Link and additive approaches. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1, 333–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Seligman, M. E. (2000). The hopelessness theory of depression: A test of the diathesis-stress component in the interpersonal and achievement domains. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 361–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Skitch, S. A., Adams, P., & Hankin, B. L. (2006b). The timing of parent and child depression: A hopelessness theory perspective. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35, 253–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Webb, C. A., Wagner, C., Ho, M. H., & Adams, P. (2006c). The role of self-criticism, dependency, and hassles in the course of depressive illness: A multiwave longitudinal study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 328–338.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Hogan, M. E., Whitehouse, W. G., Rose, D. T., Robinson, M. S., et al. (2000). The Temple-Wisconsin Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression Project: Lifetime history of Axis I psychopathology in individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 403–418.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Walshaw, P. D., Keyser, J., & Gerstein, R. K. (2006). A cognitive vulnerability-stress perspective on bipolar spectrum disorders in a normative adolescent brain, cognitive, and emotional-development context. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 1055–1104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, D. S., & Bates, J. E. (1995). Prospective models of depressive symptoms in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 15, 299–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. L., & French, L. A. (1976). Construction and regeneration of logical sequences using causes or consequences as the point of departure. Child Development, 47, 930–940.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casey, B. J., Galvan, A., & Hare, T. A. (2005). Changes in cerebral functional organization during cognitive development. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15, 239–244.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coddington, R. D. (1972). The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children: A study of a normal population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16, 205–213.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Kessler, R. C., & Gordon, L. U. (1995). Strategies for measuring stress in studies of psychiatric and physical disorders. In S. Cohen, R. C. Kessler, & L. U. Gordon’s (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 3–26). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., Ciesla, J. A., Dallaire, D. H., Jacquez, F. M., Pineda, A. Q., LaGrange, B., et al. (2008). Emergence of attributional style and its relation to depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 16–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conley, C. S., Haines, B. A., Hilt, L. M., & Metalsky, G. I. (2001). The children’s attributional style interview: Developmental tests of cognitive diathesis-stress theories of depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 445–463.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crossfield, A. G., Alloy, L. B., Gibb, B. E., & Abramson, L. Y. (2002). The development of depressogenic cognitive styles: The role of negative childhood life events and parental inferential feedback. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 16, 487–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, E. G. (2003). Psychometric properties of the Children’s Attributional Style Questionnaire. Psychological Reports, 93, 481–485.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Demetriou, A., Christou, C., Spanoudis, G., & Platsidou, M. (2002). The development of mental processing: Efficiency, working memory, and thinking. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67, 1–155. (Serial No. 268).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diego, M. A., Field, T. M., & Sanders, C. E. (2003). Academic performance, popularity, and depression predict adolescent substance use. Adolescence, 38, 35–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dierker, L. C., Avenevoli, S., Stolar, M., & Merikangas, K. R. (2002). Smoking and depression: An examination of mechanisms of comorbidity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 947–953.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diggle, P. J., Liang, K. Y., & Zeger, S. L. (1994). Analysis of longitudinal data. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, J. F., & Ahrens, A. H. (1992). Stress and attributional style as predictors of self-reported depression in children. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 623–634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, T., Diego, M., & Sanders, C. (2001). Adolescent depression and risk factors. Adolescence, 36, 491–498.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Folmer, A. S., Cole, D. A., Sigal, A. B., Benbow, L. D., Satterwhite, L. F., Swygert, K. E., et al. (2009). Age-related changes in children’s understanding of effort and ability: Implications for attribution theory and motivation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 99, 114–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, W. J. (2004). The development of a differentiated sense of the past and the future. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 31, 229–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garber, J. (2006). Depression in children and adolescents: Linking risk research and prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 31, 104–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garber, J., & Martin, N. C. (2002). Negative cognitions in offspring of depressed parents: Mechanisms of risk. In S. H. Goodman & I. H. Gotlib (Eds.), Children of depressed parents: Mechanisms of risk and implications for treatment (pp. 121–153). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gibb, B. E., & Alloy, L. B. (2006). A prospective test of the hopelessness theory of depression in children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 264–274.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillham, J. E., Hamilton, J., Freres, D. R., Patton, K., & Gallop, R. (2006). Preventing depression among early adolescents in the primary care setting: A randomized controlled study of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 195–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glied, S., & Pine, D. S. (2002). Consequences and correlates of adolescent depression. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 156, 1009–1014.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goossens, L., Braet, C., & Decaluwé, V. (2007). Loss of control over eating in obese youngsters. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib, I. H., & Hammen, C. (1992). Psychological aspects of depression: Toward cognitive and interpersonal integration. London: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., & Siler, M. (2001). A prospective test of the hopelessness theory of depression in adolescence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 607–632.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedeker, D., & Gibbons, R. D. (1997). Application of random-effects pattern-mixture models for missing data in longitudinal studies. Psychological Methods, 2, 64–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilsman, R., & Garber, J. (1995). A test of the cognitive diathesis-stress model of depression in children: Academic stressors, attributional style, perceived competence, and control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 370–380.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, J. A. (2002). “Do you know what we’re going to do this summer?” Mothers’ talk to preschool children about future events. Journal of Cognition and Development, 3, 49–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., & Siegle, G. J. (2002). Contemporary methodological issues in the study of depression: Not your father’s Oldsmobile. In I. H. Gotlib & C. L. Hammen’s (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 86–114). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, R. H., Reinecke, M. A., Gollan, J. K., & Kane, P. (2008). Empirical evidence of cognitive vulnerability for depression among children and adolescents: A cognitive science and developmental perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 759–782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, H., & Smith, L. B. (1981). Children’s inferential abilities in the context of reading to understand. Child Development, 52, 1216–1223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, A. D., Feldman, S. S., Weinberger, D. A., & Ford, M. E. (1987). Uplifts, hassles, and adaptational outcomes in early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 7, 371–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaslow, N. J., Adamson, L. B., & Collins, M. H. (2000). A developmental psychopathology perspective on the cognitive components of child and adolescent depression. In A. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 491–510). New York: Kluwer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Keating, D. P. (2004). Cognitive and brain development. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 45–84). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. Acta Paedopsychiatrica: International Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 305–315.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, D., & Pease, M. (2006). Do children and adults learn differently? Journal of Cognition and Development, 7, 309–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, J. Y. F., Rijsdijk, F., Gregory, A. M., McGuffin, P., & Eley, T. C. (2007). Pathways to childhood depressive symptoms: The role of social, cognitive, and genetic risk factors. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1402–1414.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Joiner, T. E., Jr., & Rohde, P. (2001). Evaluation of cognitive diathesis-stress models in predicting major depressive disorder in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 203–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Klein, D. N., & Seeley, J. R. (1999). Natural course of adolescent major depressive disorder: I. Continuity into young adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 56–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Littell, R. C., Pendergast, J., & Natarajan, R. (2000). Modeling covariance structure in the analysis of repeated measures data. Statistics in Medicine, 19, 1793–1819.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Merry, S. N., McDowell, H. H., Hetrick, S. E., Bir, J. J., & Muller, N. (2004). Psychological and/or educational interventions for the prevention of depression in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD003380. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003380.pub2.

  • Molenberghs, G., & Verbeke, G. (2005). Models for discrete longitudinal data. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller, D., Judd, C. M., & Yzerbyt, V. Y. (2005). When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 852–863.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholls, J. G. (1978). The development of the concepts of effort and ability, perception of academic attainment, and the understanding that difficult tasks require more ability. Child Development, 49, 800–814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. (1986). Learned helplessness in children: A longitudinal study of depression, achievement, and explanatory style. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 435–442.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. (1992). Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 405–422.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orbach, Y., & Lamb, M. E. (2007). Young children’s references to temporal attributes of allegedly experienced events in the course of forensic interviews. Child Development, 78, 1100–1120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prinstein, M. J., & Aikins, J. W. (2004). Cognitive moderators of the longitudinal association between peer rejection and adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 147–158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, M. E., & Harris, G. T. (2005). Comparing effect sizes in follow-up studies: ROC area, Cohen’s d, and r. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 615–620.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1991). Comorbidity of unipolar depression: II. Comorbidity with other mental disorders in adolescents and adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 214–222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosnow, R. L., Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (2000). Contrasts and correlations in effect-size estimation. Psychological Science, 6, 446–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, J. A., Gladstone, T. R., & Kaslow, N. J. (1998). Depressive disorders. In T. H. Olendick & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of child psychopathology (pp. 269–289). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E., Kaslow, N. J., Alloy, L. B., Peterson, C., Tanenbaum, R. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (1984). Attributional style and depressive symptoms among children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 235–238.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J. D. (1998). Using SAS PROC MIXED to fit multilevel models, hierarchical models, and individual growth models. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 23, 323–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southall, D., & Roberts, J. E. (2002). Attributional style and self-esteem in vulnerability to adolescent depressive symptoms following life stress: A 14-week prospective study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 563–579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, S. H., Sheffield, J., & Donovan, C. (2002). Problem-solving orientation and attributional style: Moderators of the impact of negative life events on the development of depressive symptoms in adolescence? Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 31, 219–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, S. H., & Shortt, A. L. (2007). Research review: Can we justify the widespread dissemination of universal, school-based interventions for the prevention of depression among children and adolescents? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 526–542.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spoor, S. T., Stice, E., Bekker, M. H., Van Strien, T., Croon, M. A., & Van Heck, G. L. (2006). Relations between dietary restraint, depressive symptoms, and binge eating: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39, 700–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O’Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009). Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development, 80, 28–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swendsen, J. D., & Merikangas, K. R. (2000). The comorbidity of depression and substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 173–189.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R. A. (1987). Development of children’s inferences of the emotions of others. Developmental Psychology, 23, 124–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. E., & Cole, D. A. (1994). Developmental differences in cognitive diatheses for child depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 15–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Selby, E. A., Bender, T. W., & Joiner, T. E. (2008). Suicidal behavior in youth. In J. R. Z. Abela & B. L. Hankin’s (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 441–465). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, J. S., Hurford, D. P., Smith, J. V., & Cole, A. K. (2003). The relationship between depression and smoking in adolescents. Adolescence, 38, 57–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Windle, M., & Windle, R. C. (2001). Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking among middle adolescents: Prospective associations and intrapersonal and interpersonal influences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 215–226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Tillett Hall, Livingston Campus, 53 Avenue E, Piscataway, NJ, 08854-8040, USA

    Joseph R. Cohen, Jami F. Young & John R. Z. Abela

Authors
  1. Joseph R. Cohen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jami F. Young
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. John R. Z. Abela
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joseph R. Cohen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cohen, J.R., Young, J.F. & Abela, J.R.Z. Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression in Children: An Idiographic, Longitudinal Examination of Inferential Styles. Cogn Ther Res 36, 643–654 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9431-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9431-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation