Abstract
In this qualitative study, informed by ethnography and phenomenology, we aimed to explore the impact of mass trauma on mother–child relationships. Specifically, affected relational processes that might interrupt healthy parenting practices and child behavioral and emotional outcomes were explored. Fifteen Turkish mothers exposed to a massive earthquake in 2011 and relocated to a container city in the Van province, Turkey, were interviewed for this study in 2013. Data analysis was informed by elements of Spradley’s Developmental Research Sequence (DRS) and interpretive phenomenological analysis. Findings indicated that psychological trauma resulting from the earthquake and consequent displacement disrupted and exacerbated mothers’ ability to cope with distress. This, in turn, influenced mothers’ ability to manage their negative emotions and resulted in more yelling, beatings, and higher aggression towards their children as well as a lack of positive emotional and physical engagement. Mothers perceived their own struggles as increasing their children’s disruptive behaviors, such as being less compliant, becoming emotionally distant and modeling mothers’ negative behaviors. The counseling mothers received at the local mental health center supported mothers in building greater physical and emotional connection with their children, regulating their negative emotions and gaining effective parenting skills to discipline their children. The current study represents a preliminary step towards understanding parenting experiences of Turkish mothers in mass trauma contexts.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
About Van earthquake. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.afad.gov.tr/ar/9845/About-Van-Earthquake.
Aisenberg, E., & Ell, K. (2005). Contextualizing community violence and its effects: An ecological model of parent-child interdependent coping. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(7), 855–871. doi:10.1177/0886260505276833.
Altindag, A., & Ozen, S. (2005). One-year follow-up study of posttraumatic stress disorder among earthquake survivors in Turkey. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 46(5), 328–333. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.01.005.
Ballard, J., Wieling, E., & Forgatch, M. (2017). Feasibility of implementation of a parenting intervention with Karen refugees resettled from Burma. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy.
Basoglu, M., Salcioglu, E., & Livanoglu, M. (2002). Traumatic stress responses in earthquake survivors in Turkey. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 269–276. doi:10.1023/A:1016241826589.
Black, D. A., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2001). Risk factors for child physical abuse. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 121–188. doi:10.1016/s1359-1789(00)00021-5.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Catani, C., Jacob, N., Schauer, E., Kohila, M., & Neuner, F. (2008). Family violence, war, and natural disaster: A study of the effect of extreme stress on children’s mental health in Sri Lanka. BMC Psychiatry, 8(33), 1–10. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-8-33.
Catani, C., Schauer, E., & Neuner, F. (2008). Beyond individual war trauma: Domestic violence against children in Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(2), 165–176. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00062.x.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Forgatch, M. S., & Knutson, N. M. (2002). Linking basic and applied research in a prevention science process. In H. Liddle, G. Diamond, R. Levant & J. Bray (Eds.), Family psychology: Science-based interventions (pp. 239–257). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gewirtz, A., Forgatch, M., & Wieling, E. (2008). Parenting practices as potential mechanisms for child adjustment following mass trauma. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(2), 177–192. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00063.x.
Gewirtz, A. H., Polusny, M. A., DeGarmo, D. S., Khaylis, A., & Erbes, C. R. (2010). Posttraumatic stress symptoms among National Guard soldiers deployed to Iraq: Associations with parenting behaviors and couple adjustment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(5), 599–610. doi:10.1037/a0020571.
Guba, E. G. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 29, 75–91. doi: 10.1007/BF02766777.
Haj-Yahia, M. M., & Abdo-Kaloti, R. (2003). The rates and correlates of the exposure of Palestinian adolescents to family violence: Toward an integrative-holistic approach. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(7), 781–806. doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(03)00119-4.
Kelley, M. L., Self-Brown, S., Le, B., Bosson, J. V., Hernandez, B. C., & Gordon, A. T. (2010). Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms in children following Hurricane Katrina: A prospective analysis of the effect of parental distress and parenting practices. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(5), 582–590. doi:10.1002/jts.20573.
Kilic, C., & Ulusoy, M. (2003). Psychological effects of the November 1999 earthquake in Turkey: an epidemiological study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 108(3), 232–238. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2003.00119.x.
Kilic, E. Z., Ozguven, H. D., & Sayil, I. (2003). The psychological effects of parental mental health on children experiencing disaster: The experience of Bolu earthquake in Turkey. Family Process, 42(4), 485–495. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2003.00485.x.
Landau, J., Mittal, M., & Wieling, E. (2008). Linking human systems: Strengthening individuals, families, and communities in the wake of mass trauma. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(2), 193–209. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00064.x.
Mogil, C., Hajal, N., Garcia, E., Kiff, C., Paley, B., Milburn, N., & Lester, P. (2015). FOCUS for early childhood: A virtual home visiting program for military families with young children. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 37(3), 199–208. doi:10.1007/s10591-015-9327-9.
Montgomery, E. (2004). Tortured families: A coordinated management of meaning analyses. Family Process, 43(3), 349–371. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2004.00027.x.
Nickerson, A., Bryant, R. A., Brooks, R., Steel, Z., Silove, D., & Chen, J. (2011). The familial influence of loss and trauma on refugee mental health: A multilevel path analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(1), 25–33. doi:10.1002/jts.20608.
Olema, D. K., Catani, C., Ertl, V., Saile, R., & Neuner, F. (2014). The hidden effects of child-maltreatment in a war-region: Predictors of psychopathology in two generations living in Northern Uganda. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(1), 35–41. doi:10.1002/jts.21892.
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Patterson, G. R., Forgatch, M. S., & DeGarmo, D. S. (2010). Cascading effects following intervention. Development & Psychopathology, 22, 949–970. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000568.
Saile, R., Ertl, V., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2014). Does war contribute to family violence against children? Findings from a two-generational multi-informant study in Northern Uganda. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(1), 135–146. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.007.
Saul, J. (2014). Collective trauma, collective healing: Promoting community resilience in the aftermath of disaster. NY: Routledge.
Scheeringa, M. S., & Zeanah, C. H. (2001). A relational perspective on PTSD in early childhood. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(4), 799–815. doi:10.1023/a:1013002507972.
Shamai, M. (2002). Parents’ perceptions of their children in a context of shared political uncertainty: The case of Jewish settlers in the West Bank before and after the Oslo peace agreement. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 19(1), 57–75. doi:10.1023/a:1014055423279.
Shapiro, F. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols and procedures. New York: Guilford Press.
Slone, M., & Mann, S. (2016). Effects of war, terrorism and armed conflict on young children: A systematic review. Child Psychiatry And Human Development. doi:10.1007/s10578-016-0626-7.
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretive phenomenological analysis: Theory, method, and research. London: Sage.
Song, S. J., Tol, W., & Jong, J. (2014). Indero: Intergenerational trauma and resilience between Burundian former child soldiers and their children. Family Process, 53(2), 239–251. doi: 10.1111/famp.12071.
Spradley, J. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Sriskandarajah, V., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2015). Predictors of violence against children in Tamil families in Northern Sri Lanka. Social Science and Medicine, 146, 257–265. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.010.
Sriskandarajah, V., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2015). Parental care protects traumatized SriLankan children from internalizing behavior problems. BMC Psychiatry, 15(1), 203. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.010.
Sumer, N., Karanci, A. N., Berument, S. K., & Gunes, H. (2005). Personal resources, coping self-efficacy, and quake exposure as predictors of psychological distress following the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(4), 331–342. doi:10.1002/jts.20032.
Turkish Statistical Institute (2015). Istatistiklerle kadin. Retrieved from http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=18619.
Walsh, F. (2007). Traumatic loss and major disasters: Strengthening family and community resilience. Family Process, 46(2), 207–227. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2007.00205.x.
Weine, S., Muzurovic, N., Kulauzovic, Y., Besic, S., Lezic, A., Mujagic, A., Muzurovic, J., Spahovic, D., Feetham, S., Ware, N., Knafl, K., & Pavkovic, I. (2004). Family consequences of refugee trauma. Family Process, 43(3), 147–160. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2004.04302002.x.
Wickrama, K. A. S., & Kaspar, V. (2007). Family context of mental health risk in tsunami- exposed adolescents: Findings from a pilot study in Sri Lanka. Social Science and Medicine, 64(3), 713–723. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.0.
Wieling, E., Mehus, C., Mollerherm, J., Neuner, F., Achan, L., & Catani, C. (2015a). Assessing the feasibility of providing a parenting intervention for war-affected families in Northern Uganda. Family and Community Health, 38, 253–268. doi: 10.1097/FCH.000000000064.
Wieling, E., Mehus, C., Möllerherm, J., Neuner, F., Achan, L., & Catani, C. (2015b). Assessing the feasibility of providing a parenting intervention for war-affected families in Northern Uganda. Family and Community Health, 38(3), 253–268. doi:10.1097/FCH.0000000000000064.
Wieling, E., Mehus, C., Yumbul, C., Möllerherm, J., Ertl, V., Laura, A., Forgatch, M., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2015a). Preparing the field for feasibility testing of a parenting intervention for war-affected mothers in Northern Uganda. Family Process. doi:10.1111/famp.12189.
Wieling, E., Mehus, C., Yumbul, C., Möllerherm, J., Ertl, V., Laura, A., Forgatch, M., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2015b). Preparing the field for feasibility testing of a parenting intervention for war-affected mothers in Northern Uganda. Family Process. doi:10.1111/famp.12189. Advance online publication.
Witting, A. B., Jensen, J., & Brown, M. (2016). Evaluating the utility of MFT models in the treatment of trauma: Implications for affect regulation. Contemporary Family Therapy, 38(3), 262–271.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflict of interest pertaining to this submission to the Journal of Contemporary Family Therapy.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yumbul, C., Wieling, E. & Celik, H. Mother–Child Relationships Following a Disaster: The Experiences of Turkish Mothers Living in a Container City After the 2011 Van Earthquake. Contemp Fam Ther 40, 237–248 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-017-9445-7
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-017-9445-7