Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Evaluation of Planning Dysfunction in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Autistic Spectrum Disorders Using the Zoo Map Task

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Child Psychiatry & Human Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorders (ADHD) and Autistic-Spectrum-Disorders (ASD) share overlapping clinical and cognitive features that may confuse the diagnosis. Evaluation of executive problems and planning dysfunction may aid the clinical diagnostic process and help disentangle the neurobiological process underlying these conditions. This study evaluates the planning function problems in 80 male children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD and 23 male children and adolescents with ASD using the Zoo Map Task; both groups were comparable in terms of age and IQ. The relationship between planning function and other executive functions is also assessed. In comparison to the ADHD groups, ASD children presented more errors in the open-ended tasks; these planning function problems seem to be mediated by processing speed and motor coordination, however it does not seem to be mediated by other executive function problems, including attention, working memory or response inhibition. In the time for planning, an interaction between the specific subgroups and working memory components was observed. ADHD and ASD present with different patterns of planning function, even when other components of executive function are taken into account; clinical and educational implications are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Ferrin M, Taylor E (2011) Child and caregiver issues in the treatment of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: education, adherence and treatment choice. Future Neurol 6:399–413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Frith U (2002) Autismo. Hacia una explicación del enigma. E-Publishing, Alianza Editorial, Madrid pp 36–37

  3. Polanczyk G, De Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA (2007) The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry 164:942–948

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kim YS, Leventhal BL, Koh YJ, Fombonne E, Laska E, Lim EC et al (2011) Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in a total population sample. Am J Psychiatry 168:904–912

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Merikangas KR, He JP, Burstein M, Swendsen J, Avenevoli S, Case B et al (2011) Service utilization for lifetime mental disorders in US adolescents: results of the National Comorbidity Study—Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 50:32–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Kochhar P, Batty MJ, Liddle EB, Groom MJ, Scerif G, Liddle PF et al (2011) Autistic spectrum disorder traits in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child Care Health Dev 37:103–110

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Goldstein S, Schewbach AJ (2004) The comorbidity of pervasive developmental disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: results of a retrospective chart review. J Autism Dev Disord 34:329–339

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Solanto MV, Gilbert SN, Raj A, Zhu J, Pope-Boyd S, Stepak B et al (2007) Neurocognitive functioning in AD/HD, predominantly inattentive and combined subtypes. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35:729–744

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Baron-Cohen S (2004) The cognitive neuroscience of autism. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:945–948

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Pennington BF, Ozonoff S (1996) Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 37:51–87

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Geurts HM, Verté S, Oosterlaan J, Roeyers H, Sergeant JA (2004) How specific are executive functioning deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45:836–854

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Ferrin M, Vance A (2012) Examination of neurological subtle signs in ADHD as a clinical tool for the diagnosis and their relationship to spatial working memory. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53:390–400

    Google Scholar 

  13. Happe F, Booth R, Charlton R, Hughes C (2006) Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain Cogn 61:25–39

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Baddeley A (2007) Working memory, thought and action. Oxford Psychology Series. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Book  Google Scholar 

  15. Goldman-Rakic PS (1995) Cellular basis of working memory. Neuron 14:477–485

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Arnsten AFT, Castellanos FX (2002) Neurobiology of attention regulation and its disorder. In: Martin A, Scahill L, Charney D, Leckman J (eds) Textbook of child and adolescent pharmacology. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 99–109

    Google Scholar 

  17. Ferrin M, Vance A (2012) Examination of neurological subtle signs in ADHD as a clinical tool for the diagnosis and their relationship to spatial working memory. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53:390–400

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Gathercole SE, Alloway TP (2006) Practitioner review: short-term and working memory impairments in neurodevelopmental disorders: diagnosis and remedial support. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 47:4–15

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Rapport MD, Scanlan SW, Denney CB (1999) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and scholastic achievement: a model of dual developmental pathways. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 40:1169–1183

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. O’Hearn K, Asato M, Ordaz S, Luna B (2002) Neurodevelopment and executive function in autism. Dev Psychopathol Fall 20:1103–1132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Gras-Vincendon A, Bursztejn C, Danion JM (2008) Functioning of memory in subjects with autism. Encephale 34:550–556

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Bodner KE, Beversdorf DQ, Saklayen SS, Christ SE (2012) Noradrenergic moderation of working memory impairments in adults with autism spectrum disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 14:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  23. Corbett BA, Constantine LJ (2006) Autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: assessing attention and response control with the integrated visual and auditory continuous performance test. Child Neuropsychol 12:335–348

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Corbett BA, Constantined LJ, Hendren R, Rocke D, Ozonoff S (2009) Examining executive functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and typical development. Psychiatry Res 166:210–222

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Verté S, Geurts HM, Roeyers H, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA (2006) The relationship of working memory, inhibition, and response variability in child psychopathology. J Neurosci Methods 151:5–14

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Owen AM (1997) Cognitive planning in humans: neuropsychological, neuroanatomical and neuropharmacological perspectives. Progr Neurobiol 53:431–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Brookshire B, Levin HS, Song J, Zhang L (2004) Components of executive function in typically developing and head-injured children. Dev Neuropsychol 25:61–83

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Bull R, Espy KA, Senn TE (2004) A comparison of performance on the towers of London and Hanoi in young children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45:743–754

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Goldberg MC, Mostofsky SH, Cutting LE, Mahone EM, Astor BC, Denckla MB et al (2005) Subtle executive impairment in children with autism and children with ADHD. J Autism Dev Disord 35:279–293

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Allain P, Nicoleau S, Pinon K, Etcharry-Bouyx F, Barre J, Berrut G et al (2005) Executive functioning in normal aging: a study of action planning using the zoo map test. Brain Cogn 57:4–7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. White SJ, Burgess PW, Hill EL (2009) Impairments on open-ended executive function tests in autism. Autism Res 2:138–147

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Shimoni M, Engel-Yeger B, Tirosh E (2012) Executive dysfunctions among boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): performance-based test and parents report. Res Dev Disabil 33:858–865

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Barkley RA (2001) The inattentive type of ADHD as a distinct disorder: what remains to be done. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 8:489–501

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Milich R, Balentine AC, Lynam DR (2006) ADHD combined type and ADHD predominantly inattentive type are distinct and unrelated disorders. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 8:463–488

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Lane B (2004) The differential neuropsychological/cognitive profiles of ADHD subtypes: a meta-analysis. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64. Retrieved from PsycINFO database

  36. Pasini A, Paloscia C, Alessandrelli R, Porfirio MC, Curatolo P (2007) Attention and executive functions profile in drug naive ADHD subtypes. Brain Dev 29:400–408

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Riccio CA, Homack S, Jarrat KP, Wolfe ME (2006) Differences in academic and executive function domains among children with ADHD predominantly inattentive and combined types. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 21:657–667

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Hughes C (2002) Executive functions and development: why the interest? Inf Child Dev 11:69–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Geurts HM, Verté S, Oosterlaan J, Roeyers H, Sergeant JA (2005) ADHD subtypes: do they differ in their executive functioning profile? Arch Clin Neuropsychol 20:457–477

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Ulloa RE, Ortiz S, Higuera F, Nogales I, Fresán A, Apiquian R et al (2006) Interrater reliability of the Spanish version of Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime version (K-SADS-PL). Actas Esp Psiquiatr 34:36–40

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Nanclares-Nogués V (2006) Autism Diagnostic Interview, ADI-R. Spanish adaptation. TEA ed, Madrid

    Google Scholar 

  42. American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder: DSM-IV TR, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  43. Weiss M, Worling D, Wasdell M (2003) A chart review study of the inattentive and combined types of ADHD. J Atten Disord 7:1–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Mandy W, Chilvers R, Chowdhury U, Salter G, Seigal A, Skuse D (2011) Sex differences in autism spectrum disorder: evidence from a large sample of children and adolescents. J Autism Dev Disord [Epub ahead of print]

  45. http://www.stattools.net/SSizunequalExp.php

  46. Best JR, Miller PH (2010) A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Dev 81:1641–1660

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Pangelinan MM, Zhang G, VanMeter JW, Clark JE, Hatfield BD, Hauffer AJ (2011) Beyond age and gender: relationships between cortical and subcortical brain volume and cognitive-motor abilities in school-age children. Neuroimage 54:3093–3100

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Wilson BA, Alderman N, Burgess PW, Esmile H, Evans JJ (1996) Behavioural assessment of dysexecutive syndrome. Thamer Valley Test Company, Harcout Assessment, St. Edmunds

  49. Emslie H, Wilson FC, Burden V, Nimmo-Smith I, Wilson BA (2003) Behaviour Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children (BADS-C). Thamer Valley Test Company, Harcout Assessment, London

  50. Baron IS (2007) Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children (BADS-C). BADS (C) may be good. Rev Child Neuropsychol 13:539–542

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Engel-Yeger B, Josman N, Rosenblum S (2009) Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children (BADS-C): an examination of construct validity. Neuropsychol Rehabil 19:662–676

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Brent DA, Ryan ND, Rao U (2000) K-SADS-PL. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:49–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Rutter M, Couteur AL, Lord C (2003) Autism diagnostic interview—revised. Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles

    Google Scholar 

  54. Lord C, Rutter M, Le Couteur A (1994) Autism diagnostic interview-revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 24:659–685

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Goodman R (1997) The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 38:581–586

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Goodman R (2001) Psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40:1337–1345

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Goyette CH, Conners CK, Ulrich RF (1978) Normative data on revised Conners parent and teacher rating scales. J Abnorm Child Psychol 6:221–236

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Conners CK (1989) Conners’ rating scales manual. Multi Healt Systems, New York

    Google Scholar 

  59. Farré-Riba A, Narbona J (1997) Conner’s rating scales in the assessment of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADHD). A new validation and factor analysis in Spanish children. Rev Neurol 25:200–204

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Scott FJ, Baron-Cohen S, Bolton P, Brayne C (2002) The CAST (Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test): preliminary development of a UK screen for mainstream primary-school-age children. Autism 6:9–31

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Williams J, Allison C, Scott F, Stott C, Bolton P, Baron-Cohen S, Brayne C (2006) The Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test (CAST): test-retest reliability. Autism 10:415–427

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Williams J, Scott F, Stott C, Allison C, Bolton P, Baron-Cohen S et al (2005) The CAST (Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test): test accuracy. Autism 9:45–68

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Corral S, Arribas D, Santamaría P, Sueiro MJ, Pereña J (2007) Wechsler intelligence scale for children, 4th edn (WISC-IV). Spanish adaptation. TEA ed, Madrid

    Google Scholar 

  64. Seisdedos N, Corral S, Cordero A, De la Cruz MV, Hernández MV, Pereña J (2001) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 3th edn (WAIS-III). Spanish adaptation. TEA ed, Madrid

    Google Scholar 

  65. Wodka EL, Mostofsky SH, Prahme C, Gidley Larson JC, Loftis C, Denckla MB et al (2008) Process examination of executive function in ADHD: sex and subtype effects. Clin Neuropsychol 22:826–841

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Mayes SD, Calhoun SL (2006) WISC-IV and WISC-III profiles in children with ADHD. J Atten Disord 9:486–493

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Martel M, Nikolas M, Nigg JT (2007) Executive function in adolescents with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46:1437–1444

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Zabala A, Rapado M, Arango C, Robles O, de la Serna E, González C et al (2009) Neuropsychological functioning in early-onset first-episode psychosis: comparison of diagnostic subgroups. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 260:225–233

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Fliers E, Rommelse N, Vermeulen SH, Altink M, Buschgens CJ, Faraone SV et al (2008) Motor coordination problems in children and adolescents with ADHD rated by parents and teachers: effects of age and gender. J Neural Transm 115:211–220

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Fournier KA, Hass CJ, Naik SK, Lodha N, Cauraugh JH (2010) Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: a synthesis and meta-analysis. J Autism Dev Disord 40:1227–1240

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Lafayette Instrument (2002) Grooved Pegboard Test, Model 32025. User instructions

  72. Wang YC, Magasi SR, Bohannon RW, Reuben DB, McCreath HE, Bubela DJ, Gershon RC, Rymer WZ (2011) Assessing dexterity function: a comparison of two alternatives for the NIH Toolbox. J Hand Ther 24:313–320

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Golden CJ (2007) Stroop color and word test. Five Edition. Spanish adaptation. TEA Ed., Madrid

  74. Ozonoff S, Jensen J (1999) Brief report: specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 29:171–177

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Hill EL (2004) Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends Cogn Sci 8:26–32

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Sergeant JA, Geurts H, Oosterlaan J (2002) How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Behav Brain Res 130:3–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Weinfurt KP, Grimm LG, Yarnold PR (1995) Multivariate analysis of variance. Reading and understanding multivariate statistics. American Psychological Association, Washington DC, pp 245–276

    Google Scholar 

  78. Tabachnick BG, Fidell LS (2001) Using multivariable statistics (3th edition). Harper Collins, New York

    Google Scholar 

  79. Stevens JP (2002) Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences. Lawrence Erblaum, Mahwah

    Google Scholar 

  80. Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erblaum, Hillsdale

    Google Scholar 

  81. Ruiz-Veguilla M, Cervilla JA, Barrigón ML, Ferrín M, Gutiérrez B, Gordo E et al (2008) Neurodevelopmental markers in different psychopathological dimensions of first episode psychosis: the ESPIGAS study. Eur Psychiatry 23:533–540

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Ruiz-Veguilla M, Luisa Barrigón M, Diaz FJ, Ferrin M, Moreno-Granados J, Salcedo MD et al (2012) The duration of untreated psychosis is associated with social support and temperament. Psychiatry Res. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.03.024

  83. Pallant J (2005) SPSS survival manual, 2nd edn. Open University Press, Berkshire

    Google Scholar 

  84. Greene CM, Braet W, Johnson KA, Bellgrove MA (2008) Imaging the genetics of executive function. Biol Psychol 79:30–42

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF (2005) Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol Psychiatry 57:1336–1346

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Robinson S, Goddard L, Dristschel B, Wisley M, Howlin P (2009) Executive functions in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Brain Cogn 71:362–368

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Bramham J, Ambery F, Young S, Morris R, Russell A, Xenitidis K et al (2009) Executive functioning differences between adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autistic spectrum disorder in initiation, planning and strategy formation. Autism 13:245–264

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Meltzer L (2007) Executive function in education: from theory to practice. The Guildford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  89. Zeigler Dendy CA (2001) Teaching teens with ADD, ADHD & executive function deficits, 2nd edn. M.S. Woodbine House, US

    Google Scholar 

  90. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Newcorn JH, Kollins SH, Wigal TL, Telang F et al (2011) Motivation deficit in ADHD is associated with dysfunction of the dopamine reward pathway. Mol Psychiatry 16:1147–1154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Cubillo A, Halari R, Smith A, Taylor E, Rubia K (2012) A review of fronto-striatal and fronto-cortical brain abnormalities in children and adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and new evidence for dysfunction in adults with ADHD during motivation and attention. Cortex 48:194–215

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Phillips LH, Wynn V, Gilhooly KJ, Della Sala S, Logie RH (1999) The role of memory in the Tower of London task. Memory 7:209–231

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Sonuga-Barke EJ, Dalen L, Daley D, Remington B (2002) Are planning, working memory, and inhibition associated with individual differences in preschool ADHD symptoms? Dev Neuropsychol 21:255–272

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

M. Ferrin has received economic support from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ETS 07/90902, BAE 09/90088), Consejeria de Salud Junta de Andalucía (EF-0029) and Fundacion Alicia Koplowitz.

Conflict of interest

The authors M. D. Salcedo-Marin, J. M. Moreno-Granados, and M. Ruiz-Veguilla declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. NDP Unidad de Neuropsiquiatría del Desarrollo, Seville, Spain

    M. D. Salcedo-Marin, J. M. Moreno-Granados, M. Ruiz-Veguilla & M. Ferrin

  2. Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Sunshine House (Neurodevelopmental Team) 27 Peckham Road, SE5 8UH, London, UK

    M. Ferrin

  3. Centro de Salud Mental de Estella, Hospital Garcia Orcoyen, Estella-Navarra, Spain

    M. Ferrin

Authors
  1. M. D. Salcedo-Marin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. M. Moreno-Granados
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. M. Ruiz-Veguilla
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. Ferrin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Ferrin.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Salcedo-Marin, M.D., Moreno-Granados, J.M., Ruiz-Veguilla, M. et al. Evaluation of Planning Dysfunction in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Autistic Spectrum Disorders Using the Zoo Map Task. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 44, 166–185 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0317-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0317-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation